About Victorian Aboriginal Languages

Colonisation and government policies and practices rapidly changed Australian Aboriginal languages and cultures. In less than 200 years, 150 languages were in severe decline, and today all Aboriginal languages are endangered, with fewer speakers than ever and a decrease in traditional multilingualism.

However, more recently, many Victorian Aboriginal communities have focused on reviving and reclaiming their languages. Some have community language programs in place. Schools can support the work that local Aboriginal communities are doing by nurturing Language speakers and providing resources.

Language revival is not an easy task. It requires dedication and commitment from all involved, including Aboriginal community members, Traditional Custodians, teachers, students and principals; acknowledgement that teachers and students are learning together; understanding that culture, land, people and language are implicitly bound; and higher levels of active community involvement than other languages.

Teaching about Aboriginal languages and cultures in an education setting can:

• support community efforts in reclaiming and reviving an Aboriginal language
  
• provide a link for Koorie students to their culture and the worldview that their ancestors held
  
• help Aboriginal people to form a stronger cultural identity, especially when a lot of their culture and language has been lost
  
• promote reconciliation, when Aboriginal and non-Aboriginal people work together to support Traditional Custodians to regain their Languages
  
• improve students’ knowledge of English due to the complexity of Aboriginal languages (for example, they have a more complex pronoun system, and different grammatical structures)
  
• improve self-esteem and performance of Koorie students in educational pursuits.

• Aboriginal community members, especially Elders, who have some knowledge of the local Aboriginal language and culture, and perhaps some knowledge of the context in which language and culture were taught traditionally, are key assets in the revival and reclamation of a language.
  

• Linguists have skills vital to the process of reconstruction, revival and reclamation of Aboriginal languages. These skills include:
  • how to reconstruct words and grammar from historical sources
  • knowledge of the relationships between Aboriginal languages, in particular, between Victorian Aboriginal languages
  • how to interpret the information in historical sources
  • knowledge of the shared linguistic features of Australian Aboriginal languages, such as sounds and grammar.
    

Many Aboriginal community members are involved in reviving their languages. The VAL F-10 curriculum provides opportunities for students to study VAL with the permission and support of their local Aboriginal community and Traditional Owners.

Definitions of language revival can vary greatly. It is generally accepted that there are three types of language revival programs utilised for Aboriginal languages that are no longer spoken as everyday languages within their communities. All have the same goal: to hear the language spoken once again.

• Language revitalisation – takes place when language is still spoken by older generations, but less so by younger community members. In this case, the language needs special support to ensure that younger people learn it fully.
• Language renewal – occurs when there is still some language spoken in the community, but it is not used for everyday purposes.
• Language reclamation – depends on historical written sources, and sometimes archived audio tapes, as the language is no longer spoken for everyday purposes. Some people might remember and use some words, but revival requires more than referring to Elders’ knowledge alone. People with specialist skills for language revival and reclamation, like trained language workers and linguists, can help communities to reconstruct the language from these sources and to develop new words.

It is important that schools have realistic goals for their language programs. Languages with many historical sources might be able to develop enough words and grammar to be able to speak in sentences, but keep in mind that this would take many, many years to do. Languages that don’t have a lot of historical sources might only be able to reclaim words and phrases for use in ceremonies or on signs.

Language awareness
Sometimes there is not enough information about a language to support a language revival program. However, what information there is about the language can be incorporated into an area of study related to the material available, for example, information about plants and animals could be used in science, or a language and cultural awareness program can be run by the school.

In the last 20 years, there has been a resurgence of interest by Victorian Aboriginal people in their language heritage, as they assert their Aboriginal identity as emerging writers, playwrights, educators and scholars. There is also worldwide research interest in the documentation of endangered languages.

Written records of Victorian Aboriginal languages include language sources gathered in the 18th and early 19th centuries by government officials and interested private citizens. Some material was published at the time it was collected, and is available in the reference collections of major libraries. Other material is only available in manuscript sources in research libraries and/or on microfiche.

Increasingly in recent years, research has been undertaken as a collaboration between linguists and Victorian Aboriginal  languages custodians and by Victorian Aboriginal linguists working with their own or other local Communities, with the support of universities and organisations such as the Victorian Aboriginal Corporation for Languages (VACL), which has a Digital Library of many Victorian Aboriginal languages, and Living Languages and First Languages Australia.

Over 250 languages, and many more language varieties, were spoken in Australia for millennia prior to colonisation. Many of these languages are no longer in everyday use; some are spoken only for special purposes (such as ceremonies), some languages exist only in manuscripts, some are said to be sleeping, and perhaps some are no longer known. This loss of Australia’s Aboriginal linguistic heritage is a direct result of contact with English.

Language displacement and loss has particularly affected Victoria and Tasmania, where Aboriginal languages are no longer spoken as the primary means of communication. Even so, most Victorian Aboriginal people are aware of their language heritage, although some may recall only fragments of the language passed down over the several generations since English colonisation.

In the 19th century, information about the Aboriginal languages of Victoria was recorded by clergymen, squatters, policemen and others who were in contact with Aboriginal people. In the 1960s, Luise Hercus recorded a number of Victorian Aboriginal people talking about their languages on audio tape. These tapes are held at the Australian Institute of Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Studies (AIATSIS) in Canberra.

The Aboriginal languages of Victoria are classified as Pama-Nyungan languages and, as such, share many characteristics with other Australian languages, except for those in the Kimberley and parts of the Top End. This is important for those who are reconstructing, reclaiming and reviving Victorian languages, because it gives them a framework within which to work. Within Victoria, some languages have been identified as belonging to particular groups. The most widespread of these are the Kulin languages, and these languages are all related, to varying degrees. This means that researchers can compare the historical data for a given language with the other languages in the same group, as they often share a lot of vocabulary, and, in some cases, even grammatical structures and features.

Before the arrival of Europeans, Koorie people often learnt multiple languages, including the language of the Country where their family was located and the languages of neighbouring Countries. Each language contained sacred, cultural and scientific information, which was passed orally from generation to generation. There are at least 44 Victorian Aboriginal languages. We cannot be precise about the boundaries of any language, as descriptions of the location for each language can overlap, be incorrectly recorded or, in some cases, no longer be known. However, the Dreaming Stories belonging to some groups do assist in defining their Country. Research and reclamation are ongoing and knowledge is constantly being expanded and updated as research findings are published and made available. Maps and lists of languages can be found online, such as on the Victorian Aboriginal Corporation for Languages and First Languages Australia’s interactive Gambay map websites.

Blake and Reid (1998) classified over 200 historical sources into language groups, using a method called lexicostatistics, which compares the words from each group to the words of other groups, to see how similar they are. They used at least 100 words of common vocabulary for each source, with the exception of Yabula Yabula, which has only a small amount of information available.

Linguists generally consider that there are 11 language groups, classified according to their general location or, in instances where this is difficult, language name: Western Victoria, Bunganditj, Warrnambool, Colac, Wathawurrung, Central Victoria, Yorta Yorta/Bangerang, Yabula Yabula, Dhudhuroa, Pallanganmiddang (Waywurru), and Gippsland.

If you look at the table below, you will see that no two language groups share more than 50 per cent of the words used, which means that they can be considered to be separate language groups.

The following are a small selection of very significant original source materials, starting in 1788, which are available online. These books contain not only wordlists, but also valuable historical and cultural information. State and national libraries house many other important books and documents in their collections that may relate more closely to the history, culture and language of individual local Aboriginal communities.

Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander viewers are advised that these documents may contain images, voices and videos of people who have died, and words and descriptions that may be culturally sensitive or cause offence.

Bunce, Daniel 1859, Language of the Aborigines of the Colony of Victoria and Other Australian Districts: with Parallel Translations and Familiar Specimens in Dialogue, as a Guide to Aboriginal Protectors and Others Engaged in Ameliorating Their Condition, T Brown, Geelong

Curr, Edward M 1887, The Australian Race, John Ferres, Government Printer, Melbourne

Dawes, William 1787–1788, The Notebooks of Lieutenant William Dawes on the Aboriginal Languages of Sydney. (The Aboriginal language of Sydney is one of many Indigenous languages spoken in Australia.)

Dawson, James 1881, Australian Aborigines: the Languages and Customs of Several Tribes of Aborigines in the Western District of Victoria, Australia, AIAS, Canberra

Eyre, Edward John 1845, Journals of Expeditions of Discovery into Central Australia and Overland from Adelaide to King George's Sound in the Years 1840-1: Sent By the Colonists of South Australia, with the Sanction and Support of the Government: Including an Account of the Manners and Customs of the Aborigines and the State of Their Relations with Europeans — Volume 02

Fison, Lorimer and Alfred William Howitt 1880, Kamilaroi and Kurnai: Group-marriage and Relationship, and Marriage by Elopement: Drawn Chiefly from the Usage of the Australian Aborigines: also the Kurnai Tribe, Their Customs in Peace and War, G Robertson, Melbourne

Journal and Proceedings of the Royal Society of New South Wales, (multiple volumes, starting at 1800)

Mathew, John 1899, Eaglehawk and Crow; a Study of the Australian Aborigines Including an Inquiry into Their Origin and a Survey of Australian Languages, Nutt, London

Smyth, Robert Brough 1878,  The Aborigines of Victoria: with Notes Relating to the Habits of the Natives of Other Parts of Australia and Tasmania, Vol. 1, J. Ferres, Government Printer, Melbourne

Taplin, George 1879, The Folklore, Manners, Customs, and Languages of the South Australian Aborigines: Gathered from Inquiries Made by Authority of South Australian Government

Victorian Government Gazette (1836–1997)

Victorian Parliament Legislative Council 1858–1859, Report of the Select Committee of the Legislative Council on the Aborigines: Together with the Proceedings of Committee, Minutes of Evidence, and Appendices, Government Printer, Melbourne, Language, p49ff

The video series The Sounds of Australian Aboriginal Languages from the University of Melbourne explores sounds that are common in a number of Aboriginal languages but different from English. The videos show clearly how to pronounce each sound. Check with your local Aboriginal community whether these are relevant and correct for your local Aboriginal language.

Teachers may also find the following standardised pronunciation and spelling information useful. It was produced by linguists and is based on linguistic analysis of the spelling in the various sources for a word, and spoken samples where they were available. The standardised spelling uses a spelling system that is widely used to spell words in Aboriginal languages. It incorporates specialist knowledge of the sound systems of Aboriginal languages and is broadly based on the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA). These standardised spellings represent the word as closely as possible to what we believe is the way the word was pronounced at the time it was recorded. Where indicated, an entry may also incorporate sound changes noted by a linguist, such as Dr Luise Hercus, who recorded the words of the last speakers of several local Aboriginal languages in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA). The use of the Standardised Spelling shows similarities and differences between words clearly but is easier to read than IPA.

The sound systems of Aboriginal languages

Consonants

Australian Aboriginal languages use a variety of the consonants found in the following table. The written form of these sounds will differ from group to group. Not all sounds will be found in each language.

This table shows that there are a number of ways to write particular phonemes (sounds), particularly the stop sounds. Each language group has their own way of writing sounds. For example, the palatal stop sound can be written/represented in any of these forms: tj, dj, j, dy, ch or ty. 

• Voicing is not usually distinctive for stops. These pairs are heard as one sound, not two. The sound often lies somewhere between the pair, so, using t/d as an example, some people will hear [t], others will hear [d], and others a hybrid between. Where it is not distinctive, the community may choose to use either the voiced or unvoiced written forms.
  
• Interdental consonants such as th and nh are pronounced with the tongue forward between the teeth.
• Alveolar consonants, such as t and n are pronounced similar to English, with the exception of the rr, which is often rolled or trilled.
• Retroflex consonants are pronounced with the tip of the tongue curved back, as for Australian English ‘r’ blended with the sound of the following letter. For example, the sound represented as rd is like the sound ‘d’ but produced with the tongue in the same position as for ‘r’.
• Some languages lack either the interdental set of consonants or the retroflex set.

Vowels

Vowel systems in Aboriginal languages can use a combination of the vowels below (or may use other vowel sounds not listed). For example, while the difference between short and long vowels is important in many Aboriginal languages, in other languages they are not distinguished. Vowel sounds in Aboriginal languages vary slightly between Aboriginal languages and are not the same as English. They are, however, frequently represented/written as follows.

One word, many spellings!

The following example illustrates the wordlist entry for the Wergaia word for ‘man’ and how the standardised spelling wutyu has been derived.

This process was often followed to provide users with a standardised spelling for each word; however, individual Communities may use different spellings than those used here.

Sample vocabulary entry from the Wergaia Language

Most of the words in this list relate to the word wutyu, but not all. Those that are clearly a different word are given a different standardised spelling in another entry in the wordlist, for example see guli. However, this list allows you to see that there was more than one word recorded with this meaning.

Here is a detailed explanation of how the standardised spelling is derived.

• All of the 17 entries that record wutyu begin with [w], so that is the first sound in the standardised spelling.
• The second sound is written variously as u, oo and a. The sound represented by both u and oo in English, the first language of most of the recorders, is the sound represented by o in the English word ‘who’, and this occurs in 16 of the 17 sources, so it is safe to assume that this would be the second sound. This sound is written as [u] in IPA, and in many, if not most, of the languages that use the Roman alphabet. This is not to say that it must be written this way, only that this is the system used by the linguists who worked on these languages.
• The third sound is recorded as tch, ty, tj and dj. The letter sequences ty, tj and dj are used in IPA, and in many languages, to represent the sound most often written as ch in English. If you try to pronounce the words spelled this way with the t followed very quickly by the y, you will notice that it sounds like ch. In the Wergaia wordlist, this sound is represented by ty, which is the third sound in the word.
• The last sound in the word is written variously as a, e, u, o and oo.
• As discussed above, u and oo represent the sound [u], so seven of these spellings indicate that this was the final sound.
• We already know that o can represent the sound [u], as in the word ‘who’.
• The sound [u] is produced high in the back of your mouth, and the sound represented by the spelling o is also produced in the back of your mouth. It is easy to confuse these two sounds, particularly when they are unstressed or said quickly.
• We also know that [o] is not found in very many Australian languages, so it is more likely to be [u] than [o]. Together with the u and oo sources, 11 of the 17 sources suggest that this sound is [u].
• The sound written as a can be pronounced as [a], as in ‘father’, or as [ʌ], the sound in ‘cup’, which is a short version of [a]. Try saying ‘father’ with a short vowel and ‘cup’ with a long vowel and you will hear this for yourself. Both of these sounds are made low in the centre of your mouth. However, only four of the sources suggest this sound.
• The two remaining sources have e, which, in English, is sometimes pronounced as it is in the word ‘peg’, where it is stressed. But e is also used in English when the sound is indistinct, as in words like ‘often’, where it is unstressed. We know that in Australian languages, the stress is generally on the first syllable, so the second vowel is likely to be the same as the e in ‘often’, because it is probably unstressed. Only two sources have recorded this sound.
• The evidence indicates that the last sound was probably pronounced as [u].
• When you put all of this evidence together, it seems most likely that the word for ‘man’ was said as wutyu, where the [u] represents the vowel sound in ‘who’ and the [ty] represents the first sound in ‘church’.
  

Beware of ‘recycled references’ !

Before the introduction of modern technology, those wishing to research language only had access to hardcopy published works and/or someone else’s manuscripts. Many of the early authors copied the works of others into their own articles, generally acknowledging the source of their information; however, sometimes these acknowledgements were either obscure or simply missing, or the authors failed to mention that their source had acknowledged an even earlier source. We are calling these 'recycled references'.

It is important to recognise recycled references, as they can skew the interpretation of any references to words, phrases and other information. It may appear that a word, X, is common as it appears in three or four sources, when it was actually only used once in the original source, and then repeated or ‘recycled’.

A quick reference guide to the grammar of Victorian Aboriginal Languages (docx - 813.49kb) is available to assist Aboriginal Language Teams and individuals who may want to explore grammatical aspects of their language more deeply and introduce particular grammatical concepts in their teaching using a step-by-step scaffolding approach. It provides a brief description of the grammatical categories, features and constructions found in Australian Aboriginal languages in general.

Reconstructing words and grammatical structures is only one aspect of the reclamation process for Aboriginal people. Languages need to be placed in a cultural context, and this requires a combination of linguistic, ethnographic, geological, anthropological, cartographic and archaeological analyses. In order to recognise the associations inherent in each word, this multidisciplinary approach must be informed by the Aboriginal community to whom the language belongs. Aboriginal language research can assist in the revival of language used in cultural practices, events and ceremonies, all of which contribute to the strengthening of Aboriginal communities.

Traditional language custodians, often in conjunction with a linguist, can provide an understanding of the range and variety of language already documented. An agreement with Traditional Owners about the most appropriate source dictionary and/or wordlists to use is essential. For some languages, simple databases and word-learning applications exist. Permission must be sought before using such tools and materials. Any words or constructions required for the purpose of teaching a Victorian Aboriginal language must come from the local Aboriginal community. Further resources for Victorian Aboriginal languages are available from the Victorian Aboriginal Corporation for Languages.

All Victorian Aboriginal languages are revival languages and certain words and grammatical structures may have been lost or did not exist at the time language information was being documented. Teachers and students need to be guided by the Language Team when creating new words and phrases. Strategies can include using known word-formation processes for the local and neighbouring Aboriginal languages, and borrowing words from other related Aboriginal languages with permission. Aboriginal languages were not traditionally written, and colonists who recorded Aboriginal languages were often unable to hear or distinguish unfamiliar sounds and used inconsistent and varying spelling systems influenced by their own languages. The local Aboriginal language specialist should be consulted for the local Aboriginal community’s preferred spelling conventions.

Sign language is a common characteristic of many Australian Aboriginal languages. These ‘alternate sign languages’ (Kendon, 1988) are not related to deafness and are not a primary means of communication. They appear to have been developed to be used when spoken communication was not practical (for example, to communicate over distances, such as when hunting), not permitted (for example, during rituals related to mourning, initiation or kinship relationships) or during ceremonies, dancing and children’s play. In some parts of Australia, hand signs are still commonly used. In many parts of Australia, including Victoria, body, face and eye movements also have specific meanings, and are used to communicate instead of speaking.

Before using any sign language or gestures, it is essential to talk to your local Language Team about whether there is existing sign language from the local language in use. If not, they may approve using borrowed sign language from another Aboriginal language or adapted from Australian Sign Language (Auslan), following appropriate protocols.

Victorian Aboriginal Corporation for Languages (VACL), particularly the Language Fact Sheets

State Library of Victoria, including its searchable online catalogue

Victorian university linguistics departments and libraries including:

• University of Melbourne, for example Research Unit for Indigenous Language
• Monash University, for example MUMA – First Languages of The Monash University Collection
• RMIT, for example the article ‘Australia’s Indigenous languages must be revitalised’ (Vicki Couzens)
  

Languages and Multicultural Education Resource Centre (LMERC) is a DET specialist resource centre for teachers and educators across a range of areas including over 60 languages, whole school curriculum development for global and multicultural citizenship, intercultural understanding and values. LMERC staff loan resources to teachers in Victoria, and research and review online materials which can be accessed through this site.

The LMERC collection is strong across the domains in the area of Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander histories and culture. Examples include an extensive collection of picture books by Aboriginal authors, multiple copies of the Dreamtime stories, and many other resources that reflect Indigenous perspectives across the curriculum.

Bunjilaka (Museums Victoria), especially the virtual tour of the past 'River of Language’ exhibition, which allows access to the sounds and stories of south-eastern Australia

Australian National Library

State Library NSW Indigenous Collection

First Languages Australia, including Gambay map and Resources

Living Languages – supporting the sustainability of Indigenous languages and Indigenous peoples’ ownership of their language documentation and revitalisation by building capacity, connecting communities and amplifying Indigenous voices

Oral History Association of Australia – promoting the ethical practice and methods of oral history

Aboriginal Languages of Australia – searchable virtual library 1996-2016 (ed. David Nathan). Contains annotated links to resources in over 150 Aboriginal languages.

Arthur, B, & Morphy, F (eds) 2019, Macquarie Atlas of Indigenous Australia, 2nd edition, Pan Macmillan – particularly J Simpson, 'Languages past and present' (chapter 7)

Nintiringanyi: National Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Language Teaching and Employment Strategy Resources – designed to help education departments, schools and local communities understand what is needed to sustain the provision of a local language curriculum

Patyegarang Indigenous language website with a particular focus on language revival.  Includes guidance on filling gaps in reviving languages, answers to questions about languge learning, developing language skills for teachers, the use of technology in language teaching, and further reading

New Zealand, Te Reo Māori in English-medium Schools – information and resources relevant to teaching and learning of te reo Maori in English-medium schools.

Canada,  Ontario Ministry of Education: Curriculum in Native Languages – contains curriculum, policies and support documentation for the teaching of Native languages in schools in Ontario, Canada

Government of Canada, Indigenous Languages – Learning and Teaching resources – tools, courses, exercises and other resources for teaching and learning Indigenous languages

Global Lessons: Indigenous languages and multilingualism in school programs, First Languages Australia – case studies from New Zealand, Canada, USA and Timor-Leste and five Australian language groups, examining successes and challenges

These publications contain academic research on one or more Australian Indigenous languages. These generally contain some words and some grammar for those languages.

Amery, R 2016, Chapter 2, Language Reclamation in Warraparna Kaurna!: Reclaiming an Australian language, University of Adelaide Press, Adelaide (chapter downloadable as a PDF)

Blake, BJ 2011, Kulin and its neighbours, La Trobe University

Blake, BJ 2011, Dialects of Western Kulin, Western Victoria Yartwatjali, Tjapwurrung, Djadjawurrung, La Trobe University.

Hobson, J, Lowe, K, Poetsch, S & Walsh, M. (eds) 2010, Re-awakening Languages: Theory and Practice in the Revitalisation of Australia’s Indigenous Languages, Sydney University Press, Sydney

Koch, J, & Nordlinger, R 2014, The Languages and Linguistics of Australia: a Comprehensive Guide, De Gruyter Mouton

50 words project – A project from the Research Unit for Indigenous Language aims to provide 50 words in Indigenous languages of Australia. All words, audio and video recordings are provided by language speakers and are included with permission. The map is intended to be a useful resource for schools and educational organisations to learn 50 words in their local languages, and for the general public to discover the diversity of languages around Australia

Victorian Aboriginal Language Corporation (VACL) projects

The NITV Podcast – Indigenous language revival – a short and practical podcast about current language revival processes, strategies and successes (21 October 2020)

Mother Tongue (primary) – Students engage with a range of different film clips from the Mother Tongue project, produced by ABC Open. In doing so, they are encouraged to appreciate both the diversity and significance of Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander languages, cultures, stories and identities

Teaching an indigenous language (Kuku Yalanji at Mossman State School, Queensland)

Indigenous Language (Yawuru) Lessons - Behind the News – lessons that can be watched on YouTube

Jones, C, Chandler, P, & Lowe K 2010, Sounds, spelling and learning to read an Aboriginal language, in J Hobson, K Lowe, S Poetsch & M Walsh (eds) Re-awakening Languages: Theory and Practice in the Revitalisation of Australia’s Indigenous Languages, Sydney University Press, Sydney, 281–292

Victorian Aboriginal Corporation for Languages (VACL) – language fact sheets, including 2. Language Sounds; 3. Spelling; 4.Spelling decisions – consonants; 5. Spelling decisions – vowels

Webb, T 2020, Changing the ABC’s pronunciation guidance on Indigenous words, ABC News

Kendon, A 1988, Sign Languages of Aboriginal Australia: Cultural, Semiotic and Communicative Perspectives, Cambridge University Press, Melbourne

Miller, M 2017, Auslan and Yorta Yorta Language, in consultation with Yorta Yorta Nations Aboriginal Corporation and Yalca Loitjiba (for more information, contact VAEAI)

Jones, C, & Queensland Rural Medical Education Limited 2013, What is the importance of body language and sign language in communication?, YouTube. (Note: The statement in this video that ‘we had one sign language which we used over the whole continent before Europeans arrived here’ is contested in Victoria.)

Living Tongues Institute for Endangered Languages 2010, Clifton Bieundurry – traditional hand signs (Australia) (Wangkajunga, north-western Australia), YouTube.

Iltyem-iltyem Sign Languages in Central Australia – online resource containing several hundred video clips of signs for public view

Bentley James explains Yolngu Sign Languages – video explaining use and significance of signs, metalanguage and Yolngu signs