Teaching and Learning

Outcome 1

On completion of this unit the student should be able to discuss complexity of psychological development over the life span, and evaluate ways of understanding and representing psychological development.

To achieve this outcome the student will draw on key knowledge outlined in Area of Study 1 and relevant key science skills on pages 12 and 13 of the study design.

Examples of learning activities

• Analyse twin and adoption studies to examine the influence of environmental factors on development, focusing on the elements involved in the research design of such twin and adoption studies.
• Use a Venn diagram to compare and contrast the contribution of twin and adoption studies to the understanding of hereditary and environmental factors.
• Watch a video or YouTube clip examining the nature-versus-nurture debate, then conduct a class debate on the interaction between heredity and environmental factors in influencing psychological development.
• Create a timeline of your life or that of a famous musician, actor, artist or sportsperson, identifying key hereditary and environmental factors and events that have contributed to psychological development.
• Generate a set of research questions and hypotheses that may be tested using twin or adoption studies.
• Consider the following research questions, suggest an appropriate research methodology and then develop an appropriate hypothesis:
  
  • Are monozygotic twins 100% genetically identical?
  • Does substance use change brain development?
  • Do hereditary factors protect your mental health?
  • Does birth order influence personality?
• A couple have six children (both biological and adopted). Create a poster to explain how similarities and differences in the children could be attributed to hereditary versus environmental factors. Comment on the assumptions and limitations in using adoption studies for psychological research of this type.
• Read articles about separated twins, such as Separated Identical Twins Raised In The US And Korea Have Massive IQ Difference and discuss in terms of reproducibility, validity and certainty in data.
• Read the article The Mixed-Up Brothers of Bogota and create a one-page visual poster to depict the case study and its findings.
• Watch the movie Three Identical Strangers and create a tri-Venn diagram with evidence for the influence of biological, psychological and social factors on psychological development.
• Investigate how the biopsychosocial model may be used in various healthcare settings such as nursing and social work. Consider the usefulness of models to organise and observe concepts relating to psychological development, identifying limitations of such models.
• Investigate the Dance of Life, a multi-dimensional model for health and wellbeing, developed by Professor Helen Milroy. Consider psychological development and mental wellbeing and how it is viewed from the perspective of First Nations people. Describe the additional elements of spiritual and cultural development that are considered key to mental health and wellbeing and included in Dance of Life but not included in a biopsychosocial approach to psychological development and mental wellbeing.
• Using a biopsychosocial approach, complete a tri-Venn diagram outlining the emotional, cognitive and social development of a particular age group; for example, a five-year-old child.
• Create a timeline identifying common developments across the lifespan and then classify each as either emotional, cognitive or social.
• Watch and analyse the 7 Up seriesas an example of a longitudinal study and the changes that occur during childhood and adolescence. Identify evidence of emotional, cognitive and social development at each age.
• View episodes of Old People’s Home for Four Year Olds and report on the emotional, cognitive and social effects of intergenerational connections for the older people. Discuss the possible social and economic benefits of the program if it were rolled out on a larger scale.
• Compare and contrast Piaget’s cognitive development theory with Vygotsky’s social development theory.
• Consider the content of surveys from the Millennium Cohort Study and classify topics as either emotional, cognitive or social. Describe the changes to content of surveys as participants age and suggest what this implies about psychological development. Consider the effectiveness of surveys as a way of generating data. Which scientific methodologies support the generation of data via surveys?
• Watch a video from the Stolen Generations testimonies website. How have they described the impact on their emotional, cognitive and social development? What has the impact been on their spiritual and cultural development? Does a biopsychosocial approach to understanding psychological development sufficiently explain the impact of their experiences?
• Imagine that you are Piaget; develop a consent form for one of his tests of cognitive development that would satisfy today’s ethical requirements.
• Use Piaget’s theory to design an age-appropriate toy to aid cognitive development at a particular stage. Consider how appropriate data can be generated to evaluate the effectiveness of the toy.
• Select one (or multiple stages) from Piaget’s theory and create an appropriate set of activities to assess a child’s cognitive abilities. Making sure that you adhere to ethical guidelines, test a sample of children from various ages to investigate the replicability of Piaget’s findings.
• Analyse Piaget’s theory and use a decision chart to provide a three-point criticism of the theory in light of more recent research.
• Use a flow chart graphic organiser to explain the key scientific steps in a chosen study conducted by Harlow and / or Ainsworth.
• Consider the ethical issues associated with the original work by Harlow or Ainsworth. Redesign or modify one of their original studies to ensure it meets current ethical requirements.
• Choose one of Erikson’s stages of psychosocial development; use a decision-making tree graphic organiser to consider the positive and negative outcomes that could result from the crises in that stage in relation to healthy personality development.
• Use a PMI chart to consider the strengths and limitations of Erikson’s psychological theory of development as a model for explaining a person’s personality.
• Create a product that may be used to guide people of various stages through the developmental stages according to Erikson’s theory (for example, a diary with conflict specific prompts).
• Role-play a series of activities to demonstrate a child in each stage of Piaget’s and Erikson’s theories.
• Use a Venn diagram to compare and contrast the role of critical and sensitive periods in psychological development.
• In groups, choose an aspect of psychological development (for example, language) and investigate the role that critical and sensitive periods play in that aspect of development.
• Watch a video on Genie (the story of Genie Wiley) and evaluate the ethics of such case studies.
• Investigate the use of animal models in understanding critical periods in the development of visual systems. Discuss the ethics of such cases in terms of beneficience, non-maleficence and respect.
• Research by Weisel and Hubel (1963) suggested that there was a critical period of development for vision. In more recent years the concept of a one and only time period has been challenged through new findings in neuroscience. Investigate the methods being used to restore eyesight in animals outside of the critical period (for example: Vision: Novel approach reverses amblyopia in animals).
• Consider the case of the cat and her ducklings and explain how this happened with reference to critical periods for both species.
• Visit the Dax Centre (Kenneth Myer Building, Royal Parade, Melbourne) to examine the conceptualisation of normality, nature of mental illness, safety and wellbeing, ethics, and legislative issues.
• 
  Research the various diagnostic tools that psychologists and psychiatrists use (such as the DSM 5 TR or ICD 10 CM) and evaluate their usefulness. (see Detailed example 1)
  
• Presented with a range of behaviours, cognitions and emotions in specific scenarios (for example, not looking someone in the eye when speaking to them or feeling overwhelmed when meeting new people), classify each as typical or atypical. Justify each choice as either cultural, social, statistical or adaptive. Discuss differences in evaluations from others.
• Create an infographic for one behaviour showing how it may be classified as typical or atypical depending on the criteria used.
• Conduct a set of mini debates claiming that one criterion to categorise behaviour is more useful than the others.
• Discuss why sensitivity and choice of language is important when discussing concepts such as ‘normality’ and mental illness.
• Prepare an infographic on neurotypicality to educate peers for Autism Awareness Day (April 2) using this or other sources.
• In pairs, with a mixed set of cards each describing a thought, feeling or behaviour, categorise the items into three groups; thoughts, feelings or behaviours. Then split each of the three piles into adaptive and maladaptive. Discuss the choices made and justify them.
• Suggest a hypothesis for the research question ‘Does birth order influence personality?’ Collect and collate class data on birth order and a self-reported score on a 5-point Likert scale of introversion / extroversion. Prepare a graph to show correlation between the two scores.
• Compare the graph from the previous birth order activity with a correlation graph for height and favourite subject. Which one demonstrates a stronger correlation?
• Observe peers from different year levels playing in different areas of the school at lunch time and record their observations by describing the activities. Agree on a method to classify the activities into categories and turn these qualitative observations into quantitative data.
• Investigate Gardner’s multiple intelligences by taking a free online test (such as Multiple Intelligences Test or 'Assessment: find your strengths'). Collate the class results for each type of intelligence and present them in a graph to demonstrate variation in each type of intelligence. Further analyse the data by calculating mean, median and mode scores for each type of intelligence.
• Research the various occupations and careers that may suit your types of intelligence results.
• Investigate and compare the variations in IQ scores between countries. What might account for the variation? How might the validity of the data be improved?
• Investigate facts and misconceptions about neurodiversity. Design a poster describing the facts and misconceptions about neurodiversity and discuss how ‘facts’ can be distinguished from ‘misconceptions’.
• Read the article ‘Altona Roosters help James Barling achieve his dream of playing rugby league’ and identify ways in which individuals and organisations can support inclusive practices and an individual’s mental wellbeing.
• Investigate statistics on variations of brain development and present the data using an appropriate graph.
• Investigate the phenomenon of synesthesia by watching the documentary 'Derek Tastes of Earwax’.
• 
  Prepare a survey investigating understanding of neurodiversity in the community. (see Detailed example 2)
  
• Select a mental illness / disorder relating to a particular stage of the lifespan and complete a brochure / pamphlet outlining the prevalence, age of onset, symptoms, treatment and agencies / places to get help.
• Investigate the Longitudinal Study of Australian Children and explain how the data collected may be used to support psychological development. Evaluate the research in terms of quality of evidence, uncertainty, validity and authority of data.
• Research the New Victorian Mental Health and Wellbeing Hubs or the implementation of the NDIS and prepare a short report on their purpose and programs.
• Investigate career opportunities in the area of mental health support. What are the areas of growth? Which course options are there for further study?
• Investigate the Dance of Life. How could mental health professionals incorporate this understanding into their practice to ensure that they are being culturally responsive?
• Hear the school counsellor speak about their role and the process of diagnosis and management of atypical behaviour.
• Invite a representative from a local organisation (such as a Youth Group that engages with and supports young people) to speak about their role and how they maintain culturally responsive practices.
• Investigate the services of an organisation such as Headspace to identify how they support psychological development, comment on the connection to or use of the biopsychosocial model.
• Listen to the radio program Why we need more Indigenous psychologists to identify some of the challenges that Indigenous people face in accessing supportive mainstream psychology services.

Detailed example 1

Evaluation of the usefulness of mental illness diagnostic tools

Background

The latest version of the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual (DSM 5 TR) was released in 2022. The most recent version of the International Classification of Diseases (ICD 11) also came into effect in 2022. Together they are the most widely used tools by psychologists and psychiatrists to classify and diagnose mental illness.

Aim

To understand the applications, limitations and improvements in diagnostic tools over time.

To improve key science skills including evaluation of systems developed to meet human needs.

Task

Students are required to investigate these diagnostic tools in terms of their usefulness and limitations using the following points as a guide:

• Summarise the content of the two main diagnostic tools (DSM 5 TR and ICD 11), highlighting the similarities and differences.
• Outline how they may be of use to mental health professionals to support psychological development and wellbeing.
• Investigate the process in developing the latest versions: which groups provided input and the key differences and improvements from previous versions including language around gender identity and sexual orientation.
• Outline how the latest versions ensure more culturally sensitive diagnoses.
• Explain how high levels of internal and external validity have been achieved over time.

Students may choose to present their findings as a written report or they can use their information to create an interview / news piece and submit their work as a short video.

Detailed example 2

Survey on understanding of neurodiversity

Background

The term neurodiversity has been increasingly used to refer to a range of disorders including Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD), Dyscalculia, Autistic Spectrum and Tourette Syndrome. One of the main aims of changing the language around traditional labels is to shift perceptions of these variations to be positive and to support and empower neurodiverse individuals. Neurodiversity Celebration Week was founded in 2018 to encourage understanding, appreciation and inclusivity for all variations in the neurocognitive abilities of the human population. Consider the information about neurodiversity provided on the Neurodiversity Hub and the extent to which you are familiar with the terms and concepts around neurodiversity.

Aim

To investigate the level of understanding of neurodiversity in the school.

To apply key science skills including planning and conducting investigations, generating, collating and recording data.

Task preparation

To investigate the extent to which your school community (or another population of choice) is aware of the concept of neurodiversity and the depth of their understanding of various neurodiverse categories, as a class, create a list of key understandings you believe are most important for the general population to have in order to achieve inclusion and empowerment for neurodiverse individuals.

Survey creation

From this information create a Likert scale survey of approximately 20 questions to collect data on attitudes and knowledge around neurodiversity. Questions and statements may be categorised by type of neurodiverse classification, and focus on common misconceptions, stereotypes, abilities and strengths of neurodiverse individuals. Students may create hypotheses around which types of neurodiversity are more commonly understood and may wish to include questions about participants’ demographic details (such as age) to investigate whether there is a correlation between age and familiarity with neurodiversity. Teachers should approve students’ final set of questions to ensure they are appropriately phrased and refer to neurodiversity in a positive manner. It is also important that students create a consent form for participants to demonstrate their understanding of, and adherence to, ethical guidelines and participant rights, including informed consent, voluntary participation, withdrawal and debriefing.

Collection of data

Each student should collect a signed consent form from each participant before administering the survey and aim to collect data from at least 5 participants over the age of 18. Results from participants should be recorded to ensure anonymity.

Analysis of data

Collate the class data and prepare the results in a graphical format relevant to student hypotheses. Present the findings in a short report, highlighting the most common areas of knowledge and misunderstanding in the population(s).

Outcome 2

On completion of this unit the student should be able to analyse the role of the brain in mental processes and behaviour and evaluate how brain plasticity and brain injury can change biopsychosocial functioning.

To achieve this outcome the student will draw on key knowledge outlined in Area of Study 2 and relevant key science skills on pages 12 and 13 of the study design.

Examples of learning activities

• Use a PMI (pluses, minuses, interesting) chart to analyse how each of the different approaches over time have contributed to understanding the structure and function of the brain. Consider approaches such as Physiological, Structuralism, Functionalism, Psychoanalysis, Behaviourism and Cognitive.
• Discuss the contribution to understanding the role of the brain of early brain experiments as well as neuroimaging techniques. This could be done as a Socratic seminar – a question-focused, student-led and teacher facilitated discussion.
• Use a ‘storyboard’ graphic organiser to outline the contributions of selected studies to understanding the role of the brain; include new knowledge about the brain’s structure and function.
• Create a timeline to identify the changes to understanding of brain function over time.
• Identify and outline the different research designs that may have been used in studies of the brain in the past.
• Evaluate the data and measurement methods used in studies of the brain over time, including suggesting where errors and uncertainty may have been present.
• In 2018 researchers at The University of Oxford used brain-scanning software to evaluate the claims of phrenology. Access the online article An empirical, 21st century evaluation of phrenology and create a flow chart summarising the aim, method and findings of the research. Alternatively write a short article for a newspaper or online blog discussing the concept of phrenology and its accuracy in light of modern research.
• Discuss the quote from Jurassic Park ‘Yeah, yeah, but your scientists were so preoccupied with whether or not they could that they didn't stop to think if they should’ in terms of historic approaches to understanding the role of the brain and / or current frontiers in brain science, such as brain to brain human interfacing, cross-species neural interfacing or cyborg insects.
• 
  Conduct an experiment to investigate the impact of types of practice on cognitive task performance. (see Detailed example 1)
  
• Dissect a sheep’s brain and identify the hindbrain, midbrain and the forebrain (lamb’s brains may be purchased from supermarkets or from a butcher) or conduct a virtual dissection to understand the anatomy and structure of the brain. Consider the value of methodologies such as case studies and simulations in being able to construct evidence-based arguments and draw conclusions as well as communicating scientific ideas.
• 
  Use clay or other similar material to construct a 3D model of the brain using different colours to code for different brain structures. Develop a key to explain the function of each structure. Consider the usefulness of such models in organising and understanding the concepts relating to the brain. What are some limitations of using such methodologies? (see Detailed example 2)
  
• Make a ‘brain hat’ using plasticine, papier maché, a hollowed-out half watermelon rind or other suitable modelling materials and label the external features and sections of the brain. Work in groups to produce plans for an adaptation of the ‘brain hat’ that shows vertical and horizontal cross-sections of the brain.
• Watch the Sentis video clip on Areas of the Brain and create a diagram showing key functions of each brain area.
• Prepare a table showing the roles of the brain regions and a possible experiment that would provide supporting evidence for each function.
• Create a role-play based on the movie Inside Out where each student in a group takes on the part of one brain region and has a conversation illustrating their contribution to behaviour and mental process as they prepare to go out on a first date or go for a driving test.
• Create a table of brain areas studied. Then for each brain area, suggest a reason why a person cannot do their homework due to temporary malfunction of that brain area (for example, because the cerebellum is stopping balance and coordination).
• Conduct a two-point discrimination test to check the sensitivity of different body parts representative to the primary somatosensory cortex. As a guide refer to this video by Learning Undefeated or Two-point discrimination from Science Learning Hub.
• Consider the homunculus in terms of gender differences and limitations in Penfield’s original research, using the article: ‘Revealing the Missing Brain Female Homunculus’.
• Debate the topic: ‘Artificial intelligence has limited capacity compared to the human brain’.
• Explore mechanisms involved in synapse formation / pruning, the action of neurotransmitters, and brain plasticity as outlined in ‘Neuroscience for Kids’ on the University of Washington website.
• Use neural mechanisms to discuss the questions: ‘How is a thought formed?’ and ‘Where does a thought go when it is forgotten?’
• Create an appropriate hypothesis in relation to brain plasticity and mirror drawing. Identify an appropriate sample, sampling method and experimental design. Collect and collate data. Present results using appropriate conventions. Discuss limitations and implications of the results.
• Investigate whether some languages are easier to learn than others. Using an app such as Duolingo, allocate half the class to learn Spanish and half the class to learn German, ensuring students have not had lessons in their language before. Decide on conditions for the learning phase, including length and frequency of lessons. Compare results on a final in app test after two weeks. Consider the influence of possible confounding variables on the results obtained.
• Evaluate the effectiveness of brain training programs by reviewing recent studies that evaluate the body of work or provide experimental evidence; for example on the National Library of Medicine website.
• Suggest research designs that could be used to investigate the effects of ways to keep your brain young (Harvard Health Publishing).
• Create an online blog (with at least four entries that cover 12 months) for a character that has experienced brain trauma. Explain the activities they engaged in to maximise functioning before the trauma, information from their doctor about neuroplasticity following the trauma, and a description of changes that indicate neuroplasticity following the trauma.
• Prepare and conduct an experiment to investigate the impact of types of cognitive practice on cognitive task performance.
• Plan and conduct a survey to investigate the correlation between the amount of study students engage in and their average grades for each subject.
• Research the psychology behind different rehabilitation techniques used for people with acquired brain injuries (ABI).
• Create a mind map to demonstrate the classification of various causes of ABI using the categories of TBI, stroke, anoxia / hypoxia, drug / alcohol-related and degenerative diseases. How might psychological criteria be used to differentiate the typical symptoms? What is the usefulness of using such criteria? What are some limitations of using categories to classify concepts such as ABI?
• Referring to fact sheets from Brain Injury Australia, compare and contrast two causes of ABI and their impact on biological, psychological and social functioning.
• Watch a selection of YouTube videos by Sarah Scott in which she describes the impact of a stroke that caused aphasia, and her recovery at various intervals following her ABI.
• Select one story from ‘Your Stories’ at Brain Injury Australia and summarise the impacts of that person’s ABI using a biopsychosocial tri-Venn diagram.
• Create a table comparing and contrasting Broca’s and Wernicke’s aphasia in terms of location of damage, typical symptoms, patient’s awareness of their condition, and an example of their speech.
• Investigate the impact of acquired brain injury (ABI) on Bruce Willis or Richard Hammond.
• Investigate the typical work of an occupational therapist or neuropsychologist. Describe some ways in which they may assist those with an ABI to function more effectively. Based on your investigation, create a product or process that may assist someone living with an ABI.
• Prepare a pamphlet that explains the cause of a neurological disorder, for example Parkinson’s disease.
• Investigate the resources at Dementia Australia and prepare a PowerPoint presentation to summarise the latest information about causes, methods for diagnosis, treatment and prevention of dementia.
• Investigate the resources at Epilepsy Action Australia and prepare a PowerPoint presentationto summarise the latest information about causes, methods for diagnosis, treatment and prevention of epilepsy.
• Locate a recent research paper or media article on a neurological disorder of your choice. Prepare a flow chart summarising the research and highlighting the implications of the findings.
• Consider the impact that music has on the physical symptoms of a Parkinson's disease patient. Investigate the research being done to account for this improvement.
• Using resources from the Australian Sports Brain Bank prepare a pamphlet / brochure that explains the causes and effects of CTE for a sporting audience.
• Using resources from the Australian Sports Brain Bank report on the correlational data between head trauma and brain disease.
• Listen to the following the Medical Journal of Australia podcast (Medical Journal of Australia 2022 Episode 7) on concussion and CTE, and summarise the findings from the first three years of the Australian Sports Brain Bank.
• Suggest research designs that could be used to investigate the effects of chronic brain trauma on professional athletes.
• Read the Guardian Australia article The AFL, the concussion doctor and the groundbreaking brain study that never appeared and discuss the importance of ethics in relation to participant access to results.
• Prepare a model of the head, including protective layers and the skull (for example, using a hard boiled egg wrapped in wool and protected by foil baking tray). Simulate head injuries common with sports and then inspect the egg. Repeat the process with a new egg, but this time include an additional layer of protection representing a helmet or other head protection. Compare the damage to the two eggs.
• Investigate the technology behind professional sport head protection. Create your own product or process to limit repeated injury. Consider how appropriate data could be generated to evaluate the effectiveness of the designed product.

Detailed example 1

Investigate the transfer of skills

Background

Brain training activities are based on evidence that practice improves performance. However, practice for one cognitive skill, such as concentration, is not necessarily transferable to a different skill, such as problem solving. The evidence suggests that brain training may improve performance on ‘near’ tasks but not ‘far’ tasks (see references below).

Relevant articles in this area include:

Lindenberger U, Wenger E, Lövdén M (2017) ‘Towards a stronger science of human plasticity’. Nat. Rev. Neurosci. 18 261–262

Simons DJ, Boot WR, Charness N, Gathercole SE, Chabris CF, Hambrick DZ et al. (2016) ‘Do “Brain-Training” programs work?’ Psychol. Sci. Public Interest 17 103–186

This activity is intended to be conducted over a number of lessons, as it requires students to engage in training in a cognitive task over time before gathering their primary data on the relative effectiveness of this for improving performance on another task. It should reinforce students’ understanding of the concept of neuroplasticity and introduce them to key concepts in research before they investigate current research in Unit 1 Area of Study 3.

Aim

To investigate the impact of types of cognitive practice on cognitive task performance.

Task

Begin with the research question: Does the type of cognitive practice influence performance on cognitive tasks? and create an appropriate hypothesis. For example, Year 11 students who engage in language-based brain training will perform better on a language-based test than students who engage in non-language-based brain training.

Planning phase

• Operationalise the IV with three appropriate cognitive tasks to represent different cognitive abilities (such as concentration, problem solving and memory) to become the IV conditions. For example, an active control group playing video games, a non-language-based condition such as playing memory with paired cards, solitaire with playing cards or small Sudoku, and a language-based condition such as playing Wordle (note that students can play more games on paper in pairs, with one student guessing and the other circling letters in the correct colour).
• Operationalise the DV by deciding on the type of task all students will undertake at the end of the practice phase; for example, a language-based task measured with number of correct responses for a Guardian quick crossword  or a non-language-based task measured with time taken to complete a small jigsaw puzzle.
• Specify a method; for example, completing the allocated cognitive task for the first 5–10 minutes of each Psychology lesson over 3 weeks.
• Discuss ethical guidelines and provide students with a consent form for their parents to sign to demonstrate appropriate ethical procedures.
• Randomly allocate students to the control and experimental conditions.

Investigation phase – testing ideas

For the training phase, allow students time to participate in the cognitive tasks over a period of time. For the testing, provide all students with the same task.

Processing phase – using evidence

Collate the data and present the results in an appropriate graphical format. Form a conclusion based on the results.

When analysing their data and forming a conclusion, students should consider:

• the quality of evidence, including uncertainty, validity and authority of data and sources of possible errors or bias
• characteristics of repeatable and reproducible psychological research and the consideration of uncertainty
• criteria used to evaluate the validity of psychological research.

Detailed example 2

Model the human brain using physical models, analogies and comparative anatomy

Aim

• Construct a model of the human brain using clay or a similar material (Part A).
• Evaluate analogies for the structure of the brain (Part B).
• Compare the structure of a human brain with that of a sheep or mouse (Part C).

Part A: Modelling the human brain

Materials: textbook diagrams, internet models or other pictures of the brain, clay (or plasticine, playdough, papier maché), black pen, paint colours, sharp instrument, piece of paper.

Method:

• Refer to pictures of the brain to shape the clay into a model of the brain.
• When modelling the brain, use the sharp instrument to model major fissures, gyri and sulci.
• When the clay brain is dry, use different colours to map out the hindbrain, midbrain and forebrain. Also identify the four lobes of the cerebral cortex and the primary cortex for each of these lobes.
• Use a fine black pen to number the locations of chosen brain structures.
• Create a key for the brain model.

Discuss and then summarise findings in logbooks. Include digital photographs of the brain models.

• Note the similarities and differences between different parts of the brain.
• Identify the strengths and limitations of the brain model.
• Consider one aspect of brain structure that could not be represented by the model and suggest a way that this feature could be modelled or represented.

Conclusion: As a class, discuss and reflect on the ability of scientific models (such as these models of the brain) to organise and understand observed phenomena.

Note: This activity could also be adapted to create a model of a neuron.

Part B: Analogies for brain structure

Analogies are often used in science to describe phenomena and concepts. This activity explores one analogy for brain structure.

Tasks:

1. Undertake research to describe how the following are analogous to parts of the brain:
   
   • a cabbage
   • a raisin
   • a pillowcase
   • string cheese
   • a walnut
   • a grapefruit
   • an avocado.
2. Evaluate the strengths and limitations of the use of analogies in describing brain structure.
3. Suggest how analogies may be used to describe brain function.

Part C: Comparison of human, mouse and sheep brains

In groups, provide students with images of a human brain and another mammalian brain typically used in psychological research (for example, sheep or mouse). Alternatively, ask each group to find their own images of the brain for each animal.

Using these images and a data sheet, students record the differences in the structure of the hindbrain, midbrain and forebrain of each brain. They might also consult other sources of information to complete this structural comparison, for example the size or weight of each structure.

In groups, discuss the ability of scientific models (developed using animals brains) to organise and understand observed phenomena and concepts related to human psychological functioning. Consider the questions:

• Why might using models and photographs of such animals’ brains be useful?
• What might researchers need to consider when using animal models to research particular neurological disorders?

Extension activity: Students work in groups to choose a particular human neurological condition (for example, Parkinson’s disease) and research how animal models have been used to develop human models for the disorder.

Outcome 3

On completion of this unit the student should be able to identify, analyse and evaluate the evidence available to answer a research question relating to contemporary psychology.

To achieve this outcome the student will draw on key knowledge outlined in Area of Study 3 and the related key science skills on pages 12 and 13 of the study design.

Examples of learning activities

• Watch a football game to record the number of times players experience impact to the head (primary data). Compare this to the data collected by the Australian Sports Brain Bank (secondary data).
• Research the phenomenon of ‘phantom pain’; conduct an experiment to explore the phenomenon of using a mirror to trick a person’s brain into experiencing sensations in body parts not actually affected; for example: Science Fair Project: Using Mirrors to Create Phantom Sensations.
• Prepare a short survey as a class to ask people to tell you about a football team, ice cream, television show and celebrity of your choice. Categorise the responses in terms of: opinion, anecdote or evidence.
• Investigate a pseudoscience (such as palm reading, tarot cards, star signs or flat earth) and identity the difference between scientific and non-scientific ideas.
• Investigate claims that diet can cure autism (for example: Raising Children Network) to consider whether these claims are scientifically based. Evaluate the quality of the evidence.
• Using a jigsaw approach, individually or in small groups, research a logical fallacy (such as appeal to authority, naturalistic fallacy, ambiguity, bandwagon). Gather information to provide a definition, example and visual image / icon. Using a collaboration tool, combine the fallacies to create a presentation, which is shared with a younger year level in Science or included in the school newsletter.
• Investigate the Center for Longitudinal Studies Initial findings from the Millennial Cohort Study Age 17 Sweep; evaluate the data presented in terms of quality of evidence, uncertainty, validity and authority of data.
• Use an online logbook format such as a Google doc to record findings from investigations.
• Use a hardcopy notebook to record summarised data from research.
• Refer to journal articles or abstracts from journal articles to gain exposure to professional psychological writing.
• Practise writing concise abstracts following practical activities and experiments in class.
• Refer to scientific poster samples for guidance on requirements for clarity, conciseness and appropriateness for purpose and audience.
• Investigate the Australian Institute of Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Studies’ AIATSIS Code of Ethics for Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Research.
• Consider cyborg insects as a new frontier in the relationship between nature and technology (see Singapore's Remote-Controlled Cyborg Insects). Discuss the potential positive applications of this technology, as well as the potential for harm. Relate ethical concepts to the research.
• Crumple a sheet of paper in your hand to form a ‘clot’ approximating a sphere and measure its diameter; collate class data to plot a histogram of clot diameters and account for the shape of the histogram; identify and distinguish between sources of error and uncertainty; use the results to discuss the difference between reproducibility and repeatability; calculate the mean; discuss qualitatively how the mean and standard deviation would be similar / different if the activity were undertaken by a different class; explain why accurate measurements are important in psychology.
• Use the CRABS framework to evaluate the validity of psychological information posted on social media.

Detailed example

An inquiry approach to investigate how science is used to explore and validate psychological research

See suggested approaches for developing the Unit 1 Outcome 3 Student-designed Research Investigation under ‘Assessment Advice’.

Outcome 1

On completion of this unit the student should be able to analyse how social cognition influences individuals to behave in specific ways and evaluate factors that influence individual and group behaviour.

To achieve this outcome the student will draw on key knowledge outlined in Area of Study 1 and relevant key science skills on pages 12 and 13 of the study design.

Examples of learning activities

• Obtain a marketing survey and evaluate how it attempts to measure attitudes.
• Analyse a series of opinion polls published in the major metropolitan newspapers; consider how quantitative and qualitative data is used to support the purpose of the survey and consider the validity of the conclusions drawn from such data.
• Visit the Dax Collection (Kenneth Myer Building, Royal Parade, Melbourne) to investigate attitudes and stigma.
• Design, conduct and report on an investigation related to the prevalence of stereotypes associated with gender, culture, age or neurodiversity (for example, leisure interests, food preferences).
• As a class, develop and administer a 20-item survey that attempts to measure attitudes on a class-determined issue; report on the results of the survey, including a summary of how survey items were developed, selected and edited, and a survey conclusion.
• View episodes of Go back to where you came from (SBS television) to consider the role that person perception, attitudes and stereotypes may have in the development of prejudice and discrimination; alternatively, consider the influence that a series such as Go back to where you came from may have on individual and group behaviour, and the role that strategies such as cognitive interventions can play in changing individual attitudes and behaviours.
• View the film Coach Carter (2005); consider the attitudes displayed by key characters in terms of the tri-component model of attitudes as well as the role person perception, attitudes and stereotypes played in the key events that occurred in the film.
• 
  Use project-based learning to address an issue relating to prejudice, discrimination, bullying and negative influences of media. (see Detailed example 1)
  
• View the film Coach Carter (2005); consider the attitudes displayed by key characters in terms of the tri-component model of attitudes as well as the role person perception, attitudes and stereotypes played in the key events that occurred in the film.
• Complete the Introduction to Disability Awareness course delivered through Disability Awareness.
• Develop a Likert-type scale and administer it to a range of age groups to investigate and report on the relationship between prejudice and age or another issue raised in the media.
• Use a spreadsheet application or a graphics calculator to create scatterplots of age and attitude scores to investigate variations in prejudice with age.
• Identify and classify the usefulness and limitations of stereotypes and person perception in decision-making and interpersonal interactions.
• Person perception and stereotyping greatly influence recruitment for employment and can lead to biased and unfair hiring. Create a process or system that recruiters could use to reduce bias.
• Watch an episode of ‘You can’t ask that’ on ABC iview; for example, facial differences or refugees (teacher to preview episodes to check appropriateness for cohort). While watching, identify your own personal perception of different presenters, and examples of stereotypes.
• Access the latest Australia Talks results (a survey which typically samples around 60 000 Australians about their attitudes to a range of issues). Discuss the purpose of the survey, study type, strengths and limitations of the sampling method and the usefulness of the findings in a real world context.
• Carry out fieldwork by undertaking a qualitative interview with a family member to understand times that their person perception has been inaccurate.
• Imagine you are a media consultant for a large fast food chain that has an image problem regarding an issue such as treatment of workers, environmental impacts or caged animals. Design a media campaign that uses elements of cognitive dissonance to reduce consumer psychological tension and increase brand confidence. Identify ethical concepts raised by a campaign of this type.
• Reflect and discuss real-life examples of cognitive dissonance.
• Read Aesop’s fable of the The Fox and the Grapes and relate it to cognitive dissonance.
• Play a game in which students try to make their partner smile or laugh by coming up with the most ridiculous example of cognitive dissonance; for example, ‘I love making social media posts against large tech companies on my popular brand phone’.
• Investigate the Festinger and Carlsmith 1959 study on cognitive dissonance and present the findings as a flow chart diagram.
• Complete an online image search for ‘Festinger 1959 research results’ and convert the table information into an appropriate graph.
• In small groups, research a specific cognitive bias covering the following areas: description of bias, explanation of how it avoids cognitive dissonance, real world examples, summary of at least one previous study and suggestions for further study or research. Share this information with other students to complete a summary table.
• Carry out the Wason Rule Discovery Test as a class, followed by a discussion on the tendency to favour information that supports one’s own hypotheses.
• In terms of cognitive dissonance and cognitive biases, discuss why people may believe inaccurate news reporting or internet hoaxes.
• Analyse case studies of real life scams in terms of cognitive biases.
• As a class, consider the following riddle: ‘A father and son are in a horrible car crash that kills the dad. The son is rushed to the hospital; just as he’s about to go under the knife, the surgeon says, “I can’t operate—that boy is my son!”.’ Discuss possible explanations of the riddle; record and graph these explanations. Compare the class findings to Belle et al 2020 and discuss the concept of reproducibility.
• Produce a poster or mind map illustrating how cognitive biases interact with stereotypes, prejudice and discrimination.
• Suggest ways that people could become more aware of their own cognitive biases to make fairer and more reasoned decisions.
• Discuss the saying ‘trust your instincts’ in terms of the psychological theory of cognitive biases.
• Use examples to explain this quote by Leon Festinger: ‘When dissonance is present, in addition to trying to reduce it, the person will actively avoid situations and information which would likely increase the dissonance.’
• Design and run a two-part survey (cognition and behaviour) to measure people’s levels of cognitive dissonance on a current topic (for example: fast fashion, minimising food waste, saving money, animal welfare, time on social media, being sun smart, eating fresh fruit and vegetables, regular study).
• Use a PMI (pluses, minuses, interesting) chart to analyse the benefits and limitations of heuristics as mechanisms for decision-making and problem-solving.
• Role-play the use of heuristics in different decision-making scenarios (for example: buying a new mobile phone, working out where to go on holiday, deciding if a website is trustworthy).
• Heuristics are often used to manipulate the behaviour of consumers. Prepare a pamphlet or brochure that explains four common heuristics in terms of consumer behaviour and provides suggestions to minimise their effects.
• Investigate how heuristics are used in computer science, including artificial intelligence and antivirus software.
• Debate whether a hot dog is a type of sandwich and relate to the representativeness heuristic.
• 
  Relate beliefs about changes in alcohol and drug use in teenagers to the availability heuristic. (see Detailed example 2)
  
• Create a meme, cartoon, animation or other visual sequence to explain a heuristic mechanism.
• View The Angry Eye with Jane Elliot (seminars on racial prejudice, 2001, 51 min, Video Education Australasia); or view Australian Blue Eyed (2001) to demonstrate the power of social influence and factors which contribute to prejudice.
• Examine the Victorian Equal Opportunity Act (2010) to consider what the act says in terms of prejudice and discrimination; identify the societal attitudes that are reflected in the document; look at an older version of the act (for example, Equal Opportunity Act (1995) and identify any changes in attitudes between these documents.
• View the film Remember the Titans (2000); examine factors which contribute to the development of prejudice, and the factors which may help to reduce prejudice and discrimination.
• As a whole class, explore a single, local issue related to prejudice and discrimination through a Q&A panel role-play; communicate responses orally (as a nominated stakeholder) and in written form (from a different stakeholder perspective to that presented in the oral communication).
• Collect media articles on issues of prejudice and discrimination (for example: age, gender, race, culture, sexuality, pregnancy / breastfeeding); examine what Victorian / Australian law states in relation to these areas; consider the language and images (if any) used in the article and discuss how the media article has been designed to influence individual or group behaviour.
• View an episode of the SBS series What does Australia really think about… (Disability, Old People, Obesity). Record examples of prejudice, discrimination, stigma and impacts on mental wellbeing. Discuss how the program itself is an attempt to change attitudes. Take notes on the methods and usefulness of two different types of studies (for example, survey, experiment) presented in the program.
• Explore the StigmaWatch section of the SANE Australia website. Provide two examples of media articles that are likely to have increased stigma against those with a mental illness and two examples of positive reporting. Comment on the power of language to increase or decrease stigma and attitudes.
• Design a controlled experiment to test the effectiveness of three different anti-stigma campaigns (for example: brochure, online education videos, face-to-face education program). Include a prediction on possible outcomes of the investigation.
• Carry out a literature review on the effectiveness of intergroup contact to reduce prejudice. Include the collation and analysis of at least three sources of secondary data.
• Read real-life stories of people who have experienced discrimination (use the Victorian Equal Opportunity and Human Rights Commission website) and identify the possible impacts on a person's mental wellbeing.
• The Yoorrook Justice Commission has been set up to look into both past and ongoing injustices experienced by Traditional Owners and First Peoples in Victoria in all areas of life since colonisation. Explore the website to identify examples of prejudice, discrimination and stigma (both past and ongoing).
• Explore the Headspace Website page Yarn Safe to consider how stigma is being challenged in different ways. Suggest ways you could use fieldwork to evaluate the effectiveness of the website in altering perceptions of mental health and seeking support.
• The Invisible Knapsack is a model used to represent conditions that contribute to racism. Explore this model by completing the Privilege for Sale activity from Racism No Way.
• Select a media article that presents a particular viewpoint on a current issue; construct a graphic organiser that identifies possible social factors that may have contributed to the attitudes evident in the article.
• Search the internet to investigate the Kitty Genovese case in relation to the bystander effect and diffusion of responsibility. In addition, explore the case in terms of opinion, anecdote and evidence, and scientific and non-scientific ideas in light of contradictory information (see: NewScientist).
• Design, conduct and report on an investigation to explore the relationship between group size and social loafing in the context of meetings; the report should include commentary on the difficulties associated with judging social loafing.
• Identify whether a range of cultures would be classed as individualist or collectivist. Consider how different cultures would apply selected ethical concepts to given case studies and scenarios.
• Classify different Australian laws as being individualist or collectivist in nature.
• Carry out a class experiment to test the impact of social loafing. Students are randomly allocated to work individually or in a group of four to five students. They are given a task for a set time period and the productivity of each condition is compared. Tasks could include making paper planes or listing on separate pieces of paper things you would find in a city that begin with the letter T.
• Design a study to test if high social cohesion or individually identifiable tasks lessen social loafing.
• Provide examples of social loafing in different contexts, such as share-house, school project, workplace, sporting team, musical audience.
• Organise teamwork activities (for example: Lost at Sea, egg drop – Mindtools) as a starting point to discuss groupthink, groupshift and social loafing.
• Undertake online research to find real-life examples of groupthink. For one example, identify the factors that may have contributed to the groupthink and provide suggestions for how it could have been avoided.
• Create a blog that explores representations of social group influence (such as groupthink, groupshift, deindividuation, social loafing) in media formats such as movies, TV shows, books and music.
• Most local Councils livestream their meetings and have an archive of previous meetings available online. Watch a meeting to identify social norms as well as examples of social group influence.
• Take a virtual tour of the Stanford Prison Experiment website, which features an extensive slideshow and information about this classic psychology experiment.
  Research Solomon Asch on the internet and summarise the effect of group size on the tendency to conform.
• Use a Venn diagram to compare the concepts of obedience and conformity.
• Analyse Milgram’s research based on the ethical concepts of beneficence, justice, non-maleficence and respect.
• Create a flow chart to clearly show the method used in Milgram’s obedience study. Write a one-page summary to summarise the findings.
• Carry out secondary research to locate more contemporary replications of Milgram’s obedience study. Discuss how these replications fit with concepts such as application of data to different cultural groups, validity and repeatability.
• Role-play an ethics committee that must decide on whether to approve Zimbardo’s prison experiment based on the principles of ethical conduct.
• Write a debriefing statement that could have been used at the conclusion of the Soloman Asch conformity study.
• Consider which scientific investigation methodology would be most appropriate for the following research questions. Which type of data is most appropriate? What methods are most appropriate to generate data? What ethical issues are there in researching each question?
  
  • How does group size influence conformity?
  • How does setting (informal versus formal) influence obedience?
  • What effect does age have on conformity?
  • How is obedience influenced by mood?
  • How does proximity to the researcher / leader influence obedience?
• Suggest whether the following research questions are most suited to a correlational study or a controlled experiment. Provide reasons to justify your answer:
  
  • How does cultural background influence conformity?
  • Do early life experiences alter levels of obedience?
  • How does sleep deprivation influence obedience?
  • What effect does face-to-face interaction versus online interaction have on conformity?
• In groups, investigate a selected issue relating to either prejudice, discrimination, bullying, advertising, television, video games or social media; each member of the group contributes a nominated newspaper item related to the issue. The group presents the issue in a form for an e-newsletter; for example: a letter to the editor, a report on solutions to the issue, survey results from a public opinion poll related to an aspect of the issue, a cartoon based on the issue, interviews with stakeholders. Create a class e-newsletter from all the presentation.
• Consider the influence that advertising and marketing have on eating behaviours in young children.
• Consider the influence that media, including the nature and prevalence of advertising material, has on gambling behaviour.
• Design a correlational study looking at one of the following and predict possible outcomes:
  
  • The relationship between time spent on social media and perception of social connectedness.
  • Time spent viewing commercial television and attitude towards sports gambling.
  • Teenagers’ attitudes towards gambling and their parent / guardians’ gambling behaviour.
• From rock music in the 1950s to heavy metal and hip hop in more recent times, music has been blamed for antisocial behaviour. Carry out a literature review to consider the evidence for these claims. Include the collation and analysis of at least three sources of secondary data.
• Use a Venn diagram to compare social connections on social media compared to face-to-face.
• Design an experiment to test how seeing the number of ‘likes’ on a social media page influences decision-making and conformity.
• Discuss the positive and negative influences of social media by creating a human Likert scale. Reacting to a statement, move to different points of a wall to indicate whether you strongly agree, agree, are neutral, disagree, strongly disagree) depending on your personal viewpoint. Once situated on the scale, share your rationale for your position. As the discussion progresses you may want to shift your position on the scale. Possible statements (points of discussion) include:
  
  • Social media makes us more connected.
  • Social media encourages bullying and anti-social behaviour.
  • Social media leads to shallow connections.
  • Social media increases social comparison and can be harmful to health.
  • Social media addiction should be seen as a disease.
• Find an online article about the algorithms used by social media platforms to control individuals' feeds. Analyse the article to distinguish between opinion, anecdote and evidence, and scientific and non-scientific ideas.
• Discuss the article ‘How Instagram helped me escape the $1 trillion wellness industry’ and consider the role social media, science communication and evidence-based information has on people’s behaviour.
• Tristan Harris, Google’s former design ethicist, has called smartphones ‘The Slot Machine in Your Pocket’. Carry out research to understand the analogy between smartphones and gambling. Consider the ethical issues with designing such devices.
• Using the Discussion Paper ‘Has Gambling Gatecrashed our Teens?’ by the Victorian Responsible Gambling Foundation, create a one-page visual representation of the main findings from each chapter of the report.
• Conduct secondary research to answer the question ‘Can video games improve social skills in people with autism?’. Focus on a particular game, a particular study or a literature review.
• Brainstorm examples of anti-conformity and classify as pro-social or anti-social behaviour.
• Read the article ‘Conform to the social norm: why people follow what other people do’ on the Conversation website. Identify possible reasons for non-conformity as well as examples of anti-conformity being pro-social.
• Research historical examples of anti-conformity as social change agents (for example, Vincent Lingiari and the Wave Hill walk off, Regatta Hotel protest). Identify the factors that may have empowered the individuals to make these anti-conformity stances as well as the social, economic, legal and political implications.
• Create a checklist to assist individuals to be independent in their decision-making when in a group (this could be a generic checklist or specific to certain groups such as a jury or recruitment panel).

Detailed example 1

Project-based learning to explore an issue relating to prejudice, discrimination, bullying and the negative influences of media

Aim

To use a Project Based Learning (PBL) approach to investigate research questions relating to prejudice, discrimination, bullying and the negative influence of media.

Introduction

Students work in small groups to undertake an in-depth inquiry into one question relating to prejudice, discrimination, bullying and negative influences of media, and create, compose or produce a product for an authentic audience.

Teaching notes

This detailed example draws on the principles of PBL developed by the Buck Institute for Education.

A PBL approach begins with an open-ended question, which is ideally provocative and engaging so that it captures students’ interest. Students investigate this question and brainstorm possible solutions, learning relevant content during the process. They then apply their learning in creative ways to produce, demonstrate or perform something, advocate for a policy or solution, or teach something to others, practising their communication skills in the process.

Each student-centred project is broken down into three main stages, which can overlap in time frame:

• Inquire / discover / research
• Create / compose / produce
• Present / share / promote

Overall four questions relating to prejudice, discrimination, bullying and negative influences of the media are required for investigation. Teachers may provide these questions or develop these questions in conjunction with their students.

A manageable way to tackle this task may be:

• determine the four questions to be investigated as a class
• student groups to share their groups’ learning with their class peers
• students to complete a ‘compare and contrast matrix’ for the four selected issues that addresses the following categories: factors that influence the behaviour involved, individual and community stakeholders involved, effect on individual and group behaviour, possible products and / or solutions.

Assessment can include self- and peer-assessment questionnaires and a compare and contrast matrix. In this way the contribution of each student within any group is accounted for.

Approximate time frames are proposed for each stage.

Science skills

Teachers should identify and inform students of the relevant key science skills embedded in the task.

Preparation

• Students may need assistance in deconstructing the investigation question.
• Students should be able to develop and administer surveys. This may have previously been covered in class, or teachers may use this problem-based learning activity to develop these skills. Teachers should check survey items to ensure their appropriateness prior to the survey being publicly distributed. Teachers should work with students to:
  
  1. identify the style of items in their survey that will best answer the research question (for example, Likert-type scales, dichotomous or ordinal questions)
  2. develop items to be included in the survey that will best answer the research question
  3. develop standardised procedures under which the survey will be administered 
  4. take into account relevant ethical principles including informed consent, voluntary participation, withdrawal rights, confidentiality and debriefing
  5. determine the number of survey respondents required (for example, five respondents per student).
• Teachers could also discuss the necessary skills required to work well in a group, including perseverance and a positive attitude.

Health and safety notes

There are no specific health and safety concerns associated with this activity.

Procedure

Stage 1: inquire / discover / research

Lesson 1 plus some out-of-class time. Students:

• Choose an investigation question (IQ) that interests them personally – ideally they make their personal interest in it explicit by recording initial ideas in the logbook.
• Form teams of three to four people with some interest in the same IQ. The teacher may facilitate this.
• As a team, brainstorm what they do know and do not know about the problem / investigation question. What specific questions do they need to investigate further? Each student should keep evidence of the process in their logbooks.
• Consider how the IQ affects different people and places – research, identify and describe relevant individuals, stakeholders and community groups. What specific questions do they need to investigate further? Students need to keep evidence of the process in the logbooks and also keep a record of where they sourced the information in case they need to return to it later.

Lesson 2 plus some out-of-class time. Students:

• Review the selected IQ and reframe / rewrite it if necessary to include specific parameters (such as particular places, stakeholders, countries etc.).
• Nominate valid sources, such as agencies, organisations or professionals in the field, who might be able to supply information to help them answer the specific questions they identified that require further investigation.
• Collect as much information as possible on the IQ by dividing up these tasks to individuals within their group. Remember to agree on a timeline for completion. This might include using methods such as: online/library research; surveys; interviews; photo and video documentation; experimental data; and meeting with a variety of experts with different viewpoints. As students research, it is critical they collect sufficient information that allows them to explain arguments for and against different stakeholders’ points of view. Each student should keep and share a careful log of their research – dates, times, sources, observations, summaries etc.

Lesson 3. Students:

• As a group analyse the evidence collated during their field studies and create charts, graphs and other visual representations to understand their findings.

Stage 2: create / compose / produce

Lesson 4 plus some out-of-class time. Students:

• Based on their research, ask what specific product / solution they would like to create that addresses the IQ. Their task is to make public a strong, convincing argument to a real / authentic audience. Does the group want to design a website, plan a community event, improve an existing project / program, initiate an action-oriented campaign, make a persuasive presentation to relevant stakeholders? Or something else?
• Identify all the steps required to make this stage happen.
• Make contact with their real / authentic audience and present to them a very brief description of the intended product / solution and the rationales for the inquiry into the IQ. Students keep evidence of their contact in the logbooks.

Lesson 5 plus some out of class time. Students:

• Create the product / solution and collect evidence of the process.

Stage 3: present / share / promote

Lesson 6 plus some out of class time. Students:

• Present the product / solution to class peers for initial review. The randomly selected class peers will complete an assessment questionnaire (based on criteria in a provided assessment rubric). Complete self- and team peer-assessment questionnaires.
• Deliver the product / solution to the real / authentic audience. Collect evidence of the process. Randomly selected audience members complete assessment questionnaires.

Lesson 7

Students complete a written ‘compare and contrast matrix’ for the selected question that addresses the following categories: factors that influence the behaviour involved, individual and community stakeholders involved, effect on individual and group behaviour, possible products and / or solutions.

Detailed example 2

The Availability Heuristic

Aim

To involve students in a short activity to increase understanding of the availability heuristic.

To improve key science skills including use of fieldwork and analysis of quantitative data to recognise patterns.

Background

The availability heuristic is a cognitive rule of thumb in which probability of events is judged based on how readily they come to mind. This misjudgment may be based on familiar ‘facts’, personal experiences or over-emphasis in media reporting.

This activity could be completed as an introductory activity before the theory of heuristics is covered. Alternatively, it could be carried out after the theory has been explored as a method to deepen understanding with a practical and personal activity.

Overview of task

Step 1: Advise students that you will be asking them three questions. For each question they are to jot down the immediate answer that comes to mind (yes, no, don’t know).

Step 2: Ask the following three questions ensuring that there is no discussion and that responses are noted quickly:

• Has the number of Australian secondary school students drinking alcohol been increasing since 1996?
• Has the number of Australian secondary school students carrying our risky drinking been increasing since 1996?
• Has the number of Australian secondary school students using cannabis been increasing since 1996?

Step 3: Collate the class data to determine what percentage of students answered yes / no / don’t know to each question.

Step 4: As a class access the latest Australian Secondary Students Alcohol and Drug (ASSAD) survey

Step 5: Discuss the following points:

• Are the class results in line with the findings of the ASSAD survey?
• If students were more likely to believe that alcohol and cannabis use was increasing, discuss in relation to the availability heuristic.
• For those who answered yes, what were some of the reasons that immediately came to mind? This may include media reporting, stereotypes, and a limited personal sample. Relate to the availability heuristic.
• For those who answered no, what were some of the reasons that immediately came to mind? This may include study in another subject, media reporting or personal experience. Relate to the availability heuristic.

Step 6: Explore the ASSAD survey in relation to key science skills, including:

• Is this study a controlled experiment? Why or why not?
• The study uses both stratified and random sampling. What does each method involve? What are the advantages and limitations of each method? Why were both methods used in this survey?
• The sample size for the ASSAD survey is typically around 20,000 students. How may this sample size influence external validity?
• What are some factors that could influence the accuracy of the results? How could these be minimised or controlled?

Outcome 2

On completion of this unit the student should be able to explain the roles of attention and perception, compare gustatory and visual perception and analyse factors that may lead to perceptual distortions.

To achieve this outcome the student will draw on key knowledge outlined in Area of Study 2 and relevant key science skills on pages 12 and 13 of the study design.

Examples of learning activities

• Conduct a practical activity based on the Stroop effect.
• Watch online videos that demonstrate inattentional blindness / change blindness. Complete a project to create your own change blindness video.
• Comment on Sir Arthur Conan Doyle’s quote from The Memoirs of Sherlock Holmes, ‘You see but you do not observe’ in terms of visual perception, attention and distortion of perception.
• Carry out a controlled classroom experiment to test the effect of divided versus selective attention on a listening comprehension task. The control group hears a story and then answers a set of questions. The experimental group hears the same story while playing a game (such as Connect 4 or Uno) and answers a set of questions.
• Brainstorm a list of occupations or tasks that require different forms of attention.
• The Transport Accident Commission (TAC) website states that drivers are 10 times more at risk of crashing if using a mobile phone while driving. In terms of divided and selective attention, explain why using a mobile phone while driving is dangerous.
• Use the concept of selective attention to explain the ‘cocktail party phenomenon’.
• Play a fast-acting card game or board game (such as Snap or 4 in a Row) and relate to the different forms of attention.
• Investigate the role of video games in improving selective and sustained attention.
• Discuss Cristina Marrero’s quote: ‘The Scientific Method is a wonderful tool as long as you don’t care which way the outcome turns; however, this process fails the second one’s perception interferes with the interpretation of data. This is why I don’t take anything in life as an absolute…even if someone can “prove” it “scientifically”.’
• In small groups, with a 500-piece jigsaw puzzle and without the overall picture, select pieces of the jigsaw, examine and pass around one at a time. After 5 minutes each member of the group draws an image of what they believe the overall puzzle picture might be. Teacher reveals the actual puzzle image and class discuss which elements of the activity demonstrate bottom up processing and top down processing.
• Feel various items placed in a box and guess what they are just by feel. Create a flow chart explaining the guessing in terms of top down and bottom up processing. Alternatively carry out this activity using a blindfolded taste test.
• Analyse the B/13, ratman and other ambiguous visual images in terms of the role of top down and bottom up processing.
• Consider a media article such as My Life With Face Blindness in light of the role of top down and bottom up processing.
• In terms of top-down and bottom-up processing, consider the internet meme that letters in a word can be jumbled, but as long as the first and last letters remain the same, the meaning can be interpreted. Additionally, consider the accuracy of this common internet meme in light of an article on the University of Cambridge’s MRC Cognition and Brain Sciences Unit web page.
• Undertake an eye dissection, examining the main structures and components of the eye.
• Participate in activities that illustrate phenomena in the visual perception system; for example locating the blind spot, producing a negative after-image.
• Undertake the Ishihara test for colour blindness and explain how such tests relate to the sensation and perception of visual stimuli.
• Use a ray box to demonstrate the concept of accommodation.
• Use a pen to demonstrate the concept of convergence: focus on the tip of the pen and move the pen closer to the nose; notice the change in muscular tension in the eye as the pen moves closer to the nose. An observer can record what happens to the eyes as the experimenter tries to keep the pen tip in focus as the pen moves toward their eye.
• Consider how monocular depth cues are used to create the perception of depth and the appearance of three dimensions in a chosen artwork.
• Participate in activities that involve using 3D glasses.
• Take photographs of symbols from the everyday world (for example: at work, on the way home from school, during weekend activities). In groups, present the symbols and describe how Gestalt principles are used to create meaningful perceptions of the images.
• Use a tri-Venn diagram to show the biological, psychological and social influences on gustatory perception and / or visual perception.
• Design and conduct a survey to explore one of the following questions:
  
  • How common is the taste aversion to coriander?
  • Is preference for spicy foods linked to early life experiences?
  • Does preference for sweet versus savory foods change with age?
  • Do people who exercise a lot also eat healthier food?
• Visit a shopping centre food court and observe and record which food outlets are the most popular. Hypothesise reasons for this based on both psychological and social factors.
• As a class, read through the journal article Impacts of chocolate wrapper on buying and taste preference and create a short flow chart summary of the research. Then create a single sentence to summarise the findings.
• Analyse the Gestalt principles used in artworks by visiting a local art gallery, visiting the online collection of the National Gallery of Victoria or looking at children's picture books.
• Identify foods from other cultures that you personally find challenging to eat. Then identify foods that you eat that people from other cultures may find challenging to eat. Suggest reasons for this based on social factors.
• Water security is increasingly becoming a serious issue in Australia due to the combined impacts of population growth and climate change. One necessary and safe solution is to treat sewage water for drinking water. Explain why one of the biggest hurdles for this is ‘between our ears’.
• Explore the genetics of bitter taste at the Genetic Science Learning Centre website to answer the question ‘How can genetics interact with environmental factors to influence taste perception?’
• After gaining informed consent from parents / guardians, conduct an in-class study using PTC strips to demonstrate the genetic component of bitter taste perception. Graph the class results and compare to broader population findings.
• View the SBS video clip 4 Heston food experiments to try at home and use one of the topics as a stimulus to design and conduct an experiment.
• 
  Write a reflective blog about what influences a person’s sensations and perception of taste. (see Detailed example 1)
  
• 
  Eating insects as a protein source is likely to increase in the future.  Carry out primary and secondary data activities to understand psychological and social factors influencing gustatory perception of insects and explore key science skills. (see Detailed example 2)
  
• Read the article Australians’ experience, barriers and willingness towards consuming edible insects as an emerging protein source and produce a mind map of the social factors influencing gustatory perception and the scientific methodologies employed. In addition, replicate a version of the survey with the local school community to explore issues regarding reproducibility.
• Participate in activities that involve focusing on ‘magic eye’ artworks.
• Investigate artworks involving visual illusion; for example, Escher’s tessellations.
• Look at a visual illusion and discuss it in line with the statement ‘It’s really important to understand we’re not seeing reality. We’re seeing a story that’s being created for us’  (neuroscientist Patrick Cavanagh).
• Consider examples of different forms of agnosia.
• Create a process or system that people with visual agnosia could use to help identify unknown stimuli more easily.
• Consider how the app Be My Eyes could be adapted for people with visual agnosia.
• Undertake experiments that examine the influence of factors such as colour, temperature, colour intensity, sight and olfaction on the perception of taste sensations including sweet, sour, salty, bitter and savoury.
• Carry out a supertaster test by dyeing a section of the tongue blue and counting papillae in a defined space (such as a hole punch in a piece of paper or a reinforcement ring for hole punched paper). Discuss the test in relation to the concepts of validity, repeatability, objectivity, and quantitative versus qualitative data.
• Using modelling clay, plasticine or playdough create a 3D model of miraculin and its binding effects on taste receptors.
• Barham (2021) found an association between supertasters and Covid-19 infection. Read about the development of his research in the Washington Post article Seeking clues to mysteries of coronavirus by studying a person’s ability to taste bitterness. Create a flow chart to show the different stages of research including observation, secondary research, hypotheses, correlational study, further research.
• Brainstorm factors that could influence the gustatory judgment of flavours. Classify these factors into biological, psychological and social using a tri-Venn diagram. Discuss whether one category is likely to have a bigger impact compared to others.
• Carry out online research for ‘lickable screen’ and summarise how a taste simulation device works. Discuss the potential social and economic benefits and limitations of this technology.
• Read the article Eating with your eyes: Virtual Reality Can Alter Taste and explain the usefulness of the findings as well as the limitations of using simulation as an investigation methodology. Design an experiment that adapts or extends the study for a particular population or cohort.
• Compare fMRI images of people with synaesthesia to people without synaesthesia to understand differences in brain activity of people with synaesthesia.
• Research three theories to explain the cause of synaesthesia and rank each in order of the strength of the evidence.
• Take the test This Synesthesia Test Will Reveal The True Age of Your Soul as a basis to discuss the concepts of validity and repeatability.
• Explore a range of online articles and video clips on people’s experience with synaesthesia and identify both the personal advantages and disadvantages of the phenomenon on people’s lives.
• Explore a range of online articles and video clips on people’s experience with synaesthesia and identify both the personal advantages and disadvantages of the phenomenon on people’s lives.
• Using a Venn diagram compare synaesthesia and spatial neglect.
• Prepare a written and pictorial summary to explain spatial neglect and / or synaesthesia.
• Line bisection and cancellation tests are commonly used in the assessment of spatial neglect. Find online examples of each test and explain what sort of results are likely to indicate spatial neglect.

Detailed example 1

Reflective blog – what influences a person’s sensations and perception of taste?

Aim

This task is staged over a few weeks of class time and involves students undertaking a series of practical activities as part of the regular teaching and learning program for Unit 2 Area of Study 1.

Students create an online blog that includes a selection of relevant practical activities that enables them to compare the sensations and perceptions of taste and analyse the factors that may lead to the occurrence of perceptual distortions of taste.

Procedure

For each practical activity, students may be asked to formulate hypotheses or make predictions in relation to sensation and perception. They undertake investigations relating to human taste that involve the collection and recording of data, analysis of data and the methods used to draw evidence-based conclusions based on their investigations, and identification of associated scientific theories and models.

In this example, the chosen format for communication of their scientific ideas is an online reflective blog (using a selected blogging website of choice such as Global2.vic.edu.au). The practical activities may involve the student conducting an experiment, being a participant in an experiment or acting as an observer in an experiment. The student may be involved in these activities individually, or as one student in a small group, or as a member of the whole class. The key knowledge to be addressed includes the processes involved in sensation and perception: taste as an example of human sensory systems; biological, psychological and social factors that influence gustatory perception; and the fallibility of gustatory perception systems.

At the time of undertaking each practical activity, the student should record the details of the activity in their journal / on their blog. Students could be encouraged to take digital photographs to record the data as evidence of their participation in the practical activities and upload these under the relevant blog entries.

Suggestions for practical activities that could be undertaken by students as part of this reflective learning journal / blog include:

• influence of colour intensity of different drinks on their perceived sweetness
• influence of being blind folded on correct flavour identification of different flavoured drinks
• judgment of perceived crispiness of food based on noisiness of packaging
• influence of temperature on perceived sweetness
• influence of brand labels and no labels on perceived taste preference
• changes in salt sensitivity with age
• influence of stress on ability to distinguish different flavours / tastes
• influence of the Delboeuf illusion on satiety
• influence of temperature on perceived bitterness
• influence of price on perceived taste preference
• effect of nose-holding on the perception of taste.

The student reflects upon the practical activities undertaken in terms of the overall research question. The teacher may decide whether to provide a set of guiding questions to assist student reflections or whether to allow students to make their own reflections based on a general question or related to a specific aspect of the area of study. The teacher should also determine when the reflections are to be completed, for example immediately after each practical activity, or after a series of practical activities, or in a block at the end of the area of study.

Detailed example 2

Exploring factors influencing gustatory perception towards eating insects

Aims

To explore the factors influencing gustatory perception of eating edible insects.

To develop secondary data skills through analysis of a contemporary Australian study.

To develop primary data generation and analysis skills.

Background

Eating insects as a protein source is likely to increase in the future. These activities explore the social factors that may influence Australians’ willingness to try and incorporate insects as a food source.

Step 1: Tuning in

Brainstorm and discuss the reasons that eating insects as a protein source is likely to increase in the future. Identify and discuss students' reactions to the thought of eating insects. Classify these reactions as social or psychological.

Step 2: Accessing a secondary source of information

Access a secondary source of information on Australia’s willingness towards consuming edible insects. For example, the journal article by Hopkins et al (2021) Australians’ experience, barriers and willingness towards consuming edible insects as an emerging protein source. Note: this is an open source journal article so all sections are freely available. Note: while the article is quite long it is written in a fairly accessible manner.

Depending on the cohort, students may read the whole article or break the article into sections with different students / groups focusing on a section each. Alternatively, you may provide a summary of the article or use a media article summarising the research such as this one on the The Conversation.

Step 3: Interpreting and analysing the scientific investigation

Depending on the cohort, decide on the best way to analyse the secondary source of information. Some suggestions follow:

Using a graphic organiser such as a flow chart, summarise the research methodology and findings under the following headings: aim of research, study type, methodology, results, discussion, conclusion. This could be done by individual students, small groups or as a whole class.

Carry out a scavenger style challenge for individuals or small groups of students to locate information and answer questions regarding the study aim, methodology, results and findings.

Step 4: Classifying the gustatory factors

Using a graphic organiser such as a mind map or table, summarise the biological, social and psychological factors identified in the article that may influence willingness to try insects.

Note: this may present a good opportunity to connect and review topics covered in Area of Study 1 including attitudes, cognitive dissonance, use of heuristics for decision-making, conformity, and the influence of different media sources.

Step 5: Carrying out primary research to replicate the investigation

In small groups or as a class, design a method to replicate / modify / extend the research by surveying the local school community. This is a good opportunity to discuss the difference between primary and secondary research, qualitative and quantitative data, as well as the concept of reproducibility.

You may choose to use / modify the original survey questions used by Hopkins et al (2021). These are available online as a link at the end of the report in Appendix A: supplementary data. It is suggested that you remove some or all of the screening questions to ensure that sensitive information is not gathered. 

Consider whether the research will be carried out using an online platform or in a paper-based format.

The class will then collate the results and process the data obtained using appropriate mathematical calculations and units (such as the mean and percentage). Then it will be organised and presented in an appropriate format such as a table.

The class findings can then be compared to the Hopkins et al (2021) research and any similarities / differences identified and discussed. This may present an opportunity to discuss errors, extraneous and confounding variables, uncertainty, reproducibility and external validity.

Outcome 3

On completion of this unit the student should be able to adapt or design and then conduct a scientific investigation related to internal and external influences on perception and / or behaviour and draw an evidence-based conclusion from generated primary data.

To achieve this outcome the student will draw on key knowledge outlined in Area of Study 3 and the related key science skills on pages 12 and 13 of the study design.

Examples of learning activities

• Discuss the quote ‘There are in fact two things, science and opinion; the former begets knowledge, the latter ignorance’ (Hippocrates).
• Watch a short cartoon clip (such as Tom and Jerry) and individually observe and record the number of aggressive behaviours. Compare results to discuss the importance of clearly defining key terms in a scientific investigation and considering concepts such as accurate, precision, repeatability, reproducibility and validity.
• Provided with a research question, in small groups provide a possible methodology for the following study types: classification and identification; controlled experiment; correlational study; fieldwork; modelling; or simulation.
• Create a table identifying the key features, strengths, limitations and an example for each type of scientific investigation methodology.
• Provided with a range of data collection techniques printed on sheets of paper, classify them into quantitative versus qualitative data.
• Discuss the strengths and limitations of both qualitative and quantitative data in terms of data generation and analysis for particular scientific investigation methodologies.
• Brainstorm ways that you could collect qualitative and / or quantitative data for the following investigation questions:
  
  • What is the impact of an acquired brain injury on social functioning?
  • What are the short-term impacts of chronic traumatic encephalopathy?
  • How do stereotypes influence social interactions?
  • How does stigma influence mental wellbeing?
  • What effect does colour have on perception of ice cream flavour?
  • How does ‘multi-tasking’ influence accuracy on a hand-eye coordination task?
• Annotate target board images to visually represent the concepts of accuracy and precision.
• Test heart rate via a number of different means (for example: fingers on wrist, fingers on neck, heart rate monitors). Compare the results as a basis for discussing the concepts of accuracy, precision, random errors, systematic errors, personal errors and reproducibility.
• Use a Venn diagram to distinguish between the concepts of accuracy and precision.
• Use a Venn diagram to distinguish between the concepts of reproducibility and repeatability.
• Make a checklist of things to consider when assessing the credibility and validity of a piece of psychological research.
• As a class, create a set of guidelines to ensure that health, safety and ethical guidelines are met when carrying out practical research activities.
• Using a concept such as gustatory perception, distinguish between a theory, model, aim and hypothesis.
• Provided with a range of research scenarios and statements, classify them as either primary or secondary data.
• As a class, create a one-page reference document with key advice on methods to organise and analyse primary data (for example: when to use different graph types, how to work out mean, headings and labels, how to spot outliers).
• As a class, discuss the purpose of logbooks in psychology research.
• Make a checklist of features that should be part of a scientific logbook (such as being dated and chronological).
• Scientific posters are typically used at large conferences. With this in mind, discuss why poster conventions, word brevity and clear data analysis in graphs / tables is important.
• Conduct a web search for ‘scientific poster’ images. Identify similarities in headings, layout and content. Identify differences in the posters and consider the features that enhance effective communication.
• When looking at studies from a textbook or other sources, write a ‘communication statement’ reporting the key finding of the investigation as a one-sentence summary.
• Discuss the real life implications of theories and models by answering questions such as: For whom are these findings most relevant? How can these findings be used to advance society? Is there the potential for these findings to be applied in an unjust manner?

Outcome 1

On completion of this unit the student should be able to analyse how the functioning of the human nervous system enables a person to interact with the external world, and evaluate the different ways in which stress can affect psychobiological functioning.

To achieve this outcome the student will draw on key knowledge outlined in Area of Study 1 and relevant key science skills on pages 12 and 13 of the study design.

Examples of learning activities

• Using chalk and concrete (outdoors) or butcher’s paper and textas (indoors), and working in pairs, trace a life-sized outline of each other’s body. Each student then uses their own outline to fill in each division of the human nervous system, using a different colour for each division; labels should be added to indicate the function of each of the divisions.
• Construct a flow chart explaining how the different divisions of the nervous system respond to, integrate and coordinate, when a person does a particular action; for example, picks up a hot cup of coffee, pats a dog, catches a ball.
• Work in pairs to investigate human reflexes: knee-jerk reflex (lightly strike the knee just below the knee-cap of someone sitting down with legs crossed to observe the leg kick up); pilo-motor reflex (tickle the back of the neck to observe the hairs stand on end); plantar reflex (lightly scratch the outer edge of the sole of the foot and observe toes flexing).
• Complete a Venn diagram outlining the similarities and differences between conscious and unconscious responses.
• Conduct controlled experiments into reflex actions; for example, the reaction time of a human nerve-controlled reaction. See Backyard Brains for a lesson plan.
• Create a folio of a range of related experiments and activities exploring the nervous system as outlined in 'Neuroscience for Kids’.
• Work in pairs to formulate a hypothesis and investigate experimentally the factors that affect reaction times in catching a dropped ruler; for example, gender, age, level of alertness, before or after eating. Draw the neural pathway to illustrate how messages travel from the stimulus to the action.
• Produce a cartoon or other visual sequence format to illustrate the role of the spinal reflex.
• Play a ‘walk the plank’ game using a VR headset (this could be a purchased headset or a simple cardboard headset from an online template). Compare heart rate before, during and after the activity as a basis to discuss sympathetic nervous system activation and the role of simulation as a study methodology.
• Explore the use of exoskeletons controlled by a brain-machine interface, such as in the video: Exoskeleton Controlled by a Brain-Machine Interface. Use the clip as a stimulus to discuss the crucial role of the spinal cord, the complexity of processing and coordinating with sensory stimuli, and the potential promises and perils of new technologies.
• 
  Demonstrate the speed of neural transmission using a chain of students as a model. (see Detailed example 1)
  
• Compare the roles of dopamine and GABA in Parkinson’s disease.
• Use lollies (or different shaped dried pasta) to construct a model of a synapse to demonstrate the role of neurotransmitters in the transmission of neural information.
• Create a dramatisation of the transmission of neural information across the synapse, with students playing the role of different parts of the neuron and synapse.
• Create a Venn diagram to compare and contrast neurotransmitters and neuromodulators.
• Produce a cartoon or other visual sequence format to illustrate the role of neurotransmitters and neuromodulators.
• Investigate how SSRIs can be used to treat mood disorders. Create a diagram to show the process at a neuronal level.
• Create a Venn diagram to show the similarities and differences between the roles of dopamine and serotonin.
• Watch the video clip Gait training for Parkinson's patient using music to illustrate the impact of music on a Parkinson's disease patient. Investigate the role that dopamine may play in music therapy.
• Use clay or playdough to make a model that demonstrates how neural plasticity and changes to connections between neurons result in memory formation.
• Explore mechanisms involved in learning, such as synapse formation, the action of neurotransmitters, and brain plasticity, as outlined in 'Neuroscience for Kids’.
• Use a Venn diagram to compare long-term potentiation and long-term depression.
• Using a flow chart or cartoon sequence of the processes of synaptic plasticity that has been cut it into pieces, arrange the processes in the correct order.
• Create three cartoons or scenarios to illustrate how the same ‘fright’ stimulus can cause either a ‘fight’, ‘flight’ or ‘freeze’ response.
• Discuss why cortisol is referred to as the ‘stress hormone’. Access articles such as Cortisol levels and stress: how cortisol levels and stress are connected - Blog | Everlywell: Home Health Testing Made Easy and evaluate the accuracy of information and the effectiveness of the communication.
• Design and perform an investigation to determine whether particular types of music are more effective in relieving stress or creating a relaxed mood.
• Using a series of case studies or examples, differentiate between acute and chronic stress and psychological and physiological stress responses.
• Write a blog-style response to the question: Is cortisol good or bad?
• Create your own ‘hassles and uplifts’ scale to identify things in daily life that cause or reduce stress. Discuss differences in the scales created by the class, and suggest reasons for the differences, including cultural bias.
• The Holmes and Rahe Social Readjustment Rating Scale was developed in 1967 to measure life events that cause stress. It was last revised in 1997. Consider additions or changes that could be made to the Scale to make it more relevant to contemporary society.
• 
  Investigate the ongoing effects of a major catastrophe on the Japanese people. (see Detailed example 2)
  
• Create a concept map depicting the relationship of the gut-brain axis using the videos: The Gut-Brain Connection and the TedTalk: Food for thought: How your belly controls your brain.
• Construct a flow chart for a controlled experiment to test one of the following hypotheses:
  
  • Stress changes the microbiota of the gut in animals
  • Microbiota of the gut changes mood for adult women
  • A healthy diet results in less mental health issues.
• Discuss the literature review ‘Gut microbiota’s effect on mental health: The gut-brain axis’.
• Investigate the efficacy of products such as Kombucha or procedures such as fecal implants or colon cleansing in improving gut health and mental health.
• Design and conduct an experiment to investigate the claim that chocolate makes people happy.
• Recent research suggests that bacteria in the gut can have direct influence on the neurons in the hypothalamus. Create a flow chart demonstrating the key elements of the research. A useful article can be found at ScienceDaily.
• Recent research has found that gastrointestinal issues are linked with anxiety and social withdrawal for children with autism (see Science Daily). Explain how a model of the ‘gut-brain axis’ assists in understanding the findings of this study. In particular, how has the finding of a correlation between psychological and biological symptoms led to clinical trials to investigate a causal relationship.
• Discuss Hans Selye’s quote, ‘Every stress leaves an indelible scar, and the organism pays for its survival after a stressful situation by becoming a little older’ in relation to his General Adaptation Syndrome as a model that explains the stress response.
• Practise drawing and labelling a diagram of the model from memory.
• Respond to questions about the General Adaptation Syndrome such as: What question was Hans Selye trying to answer with the GAS model? To what extent does the model answer that question? What is the overall explanatory power, and usefulness, of the model for humans in the real world? Do you think the GAS model can be used in conjunction with the Transactional Model of Stress and Coping or are they opposed to one another?
• Using the GAS model, annotate an example of a stressful experience (this could be from personal experience such as preparing for four SACs in one week or from a fictional situation such as a character from a favourite television show or movie) by indicating what happened physiologically at each stage (e.g. heart rate increased when I saw the calendar, cortisol continued to be released while I did revision). In a different colour pen, annotate the psychological components of the event (e.g. I was worrying about getting good grades, I was thinking positively about my preparation).
• Use a ‘PMI (plus-minus-interesting) Chart’ to summarise the stages of primary and secondary appraisal according to Lazarus & Folkman’s Transactional Model of Stress and Coping.
• Prepare a PowerPoint presentation, using examples from personal experience, to illustrate the application of primary and secondary appraisal.
• Using the melody of your favourite song, write new lyrics to it that explain the stages of the Transactional Model.
• Use a Venn diagram to compare the explanatory power of The General Adaptation Syndrome and The Transactional Model of Stress and Coping.
• Conduct a survey to find whether there is a relationship between exercise habits and self-perceived levels of stress.
• Design and perform an investigation to test the statement that people who self-identify as being stressed also tend to eat more food, and food that is higher in carbohydrates, than people who self-identify as being less stressed. Explain how this investigation could be modified to test the statement that ‘people who secrete higher levels of cortisol in response to stress also tend to eat more food and food that is higher in carbohydrates than people who secrete lower levels of cortisol in response to stress’. Identify the relationship between these two different investigations.
• Construct a table that identifies specific approach and avoidance strategies for coping with stress, with reference to Roth & Cohen’s (1986) model of approach and avoidance coping strategies.
• As a class, create a short survey or scale that could be used to measure coping flexibility.
• Identify the potential benefits and limitations of approach and avoidance strategies in coping with stress and improving mental wellbeing. Consider both short-term and long-term consequences for each strategy.
• Consult a pamphlet or brochure (created by teacher) outlining novel or unique strategies that students could use to reduce their level of stress during Year 12, considering context-specific effectiveness and coping flexibility.
• Conduct a short survey to create a list of all the coping strategies students, friends and family members may use in response to stressful situations. Classify these as approach / avoidance and whether they demonstrate context-specific effectiveness or coping flexibility.
• Many commonly used stress scales were developed in America with a sample of predominantly white participants. Discuss the appropriateness and application to an Australian context.

Detailed example 1

Conduct a simulation activity demonstrating the speed of neural transmission

Background

The speed of neural transmission is estimated to be 70–120 meters per second (m / s). Therefore the time it takes for sensory and motor messages to travel through the body increases the further they have to go. This task helps students appreciate exactly how fast this process is, while also reinforcing their understanding of research method terms. Note: typically this simulation activity will yield a number of errors as students familiarise themselves with the process. This is actually preferable since errors will contribute to a good discussion and assist students in understanding the subject matter.

Aim

To simulate the speed of neural transmission.

Hypothesis

That neural transmission will be faster when it has less distance to travel.

IV: squeezing the shoulder or ankle

DV: time taken for pulse to pass around a circle

Method

Students will sit in a circle to pass a ‘pulse’ around the group. Ask students to rest their hand on the shoulder of the person to their right and close their eyes. One student will start and each student is to pass on the squeeze as soon as they feel it. The first student should start the timer as they squeeze the first person. Repeat this process five times to get an average ‘shoulder’ recording. Then ask another student to start the squeeze and be the timekeeper.

Repeat the process but this time with students holding the ankle of the person next to them.

Results

Present the data in an appropriate graphical format and compare the average times.

Discussion

Explain why the first condition is faster and evaluate any methodological issues, including data and measurement, and errors, uncertainty and outliers.

Questions that may be asked are:

• How accurate is the measurement of neural transmission collected?
• Were there any systematic errors?
• How precise were the measurements of neural transmission?
• Were there any random errors? Were there any personal errors?
• Were there any outliers?
• Was repeatability of measurement demonstrated?
• Were the results reproduced by the second timekeeper in each condition?
• Would it be possible to measure the true value of speed of neural transmission this way?
• Is this a valid measurement of the speed of neural transmission?

Detailed example 2

Stress in Japan

Aims

• To investigate the Japanese tsunami of 2011 and its ongoing effects as a major source of stress for the Japanese population.
• To examine the nature of scientific evidence.

Background information for teachers

Japan, being geologically located at the nexus of four tectonic plates, experiences more than 1,500 seismic events each year, including at least two 5.0 magnitude or higher earthquakes. As a result, between 1608 and 1945 Tokyo was destroyed and rebuilt, on average, once every five years. On 11 March 2011, a magnitude-9 earthquake shook northeastern Japan, also creating a devastating tsunami. The effects of this earthquake were felt globally and tsunami debris continues to wash up as far away as in North America. Residents are still recovering from the disaster.

Students are provided with the following data collected by an American reporter. Some data comes from secondary sources, such as previous studies and government-based statistics and some has been collected through interviews with Japanese residents (primary data):

• The disaster has caused an increase in suicides, PTSD, and stress-related physical ailments like cardiovascular disease. In particular, the number of stress-related deaths (1,656) reported by the Japanese government, has topped deaths directly caused by the earthquake, tsunami, and nuclear meltdown combined.
• In 2010, NYU sociologist Florencia Torche studied the impact of the 2008 Chilean earthquake on mothers with infants then in utero. She found the heightened levels of cortisol in mothers of infants born in the first trimester of the quake led to lower birth weights, earlier birth rates, and increased cortisol levels in their children. Those born in earthquake areas are, after 14 years, at a cognitive and physical disadvantage: They performed worse in school and didn’t boast as strong a stature. Torche’s findings show that the effect of an earthquake ‘can exist over the individual’s entire life—even across generations’.
• There is some evidence that the Japanese are being similarly affected. Japanese people of all ages are more likely to carry a gene that predisposes them to react more strongly to stressful events than people outside of Japan. In a 2008 study, Japanese infants were found to react to the pain of being inoculated with more cortisol than American infants did, though they also whined less than the Americans.
• Stress could also explain Japan’s famously low birth rates: exposure to stressful environments is correlated with lower sperm counts, ovulation issues, and other issues of reproductive functioning. High levels of chronic stress and cortisol decrease sex drives in women, and in Japan, a full 45 per cent of women reported they were ‘not interested in sexual contact’—and more than 25 per cent of Japanese men feel the same way.
•  ‘The Japanese talk about stress a whole lot less than Americans talk about stress,’ says Bill Tsutsui, a Japanese-American historian. ‘And yet, to me, Japanese society is the most stressful on the planet.’ Even though only 2.5 per cent of Japanese people are diagnosed with depression at any given time, compared with 6.7 per cent of Americans, the suicide rate among Japanese people is 20.1 per 100,000, compared to 12.6 for Americans.
• The stigma surrounding mental health means that for many, the idea of reporting stress is more stressful than simply living—or dying—with it. ‘The stress of social interaction has caused a flight from human intimacy. You cannot open your mouth to say a word without considering your relationship with the people around you—your place in the hierarchy. And if you say something wrong you risk grievously offending people.’

Science skills

Teachers should identify and inform students of the relevant key science skills embedded in the task.

Activity 1: Stress as a psychobiological process

• Students can work in small groups to read and complete a simple summary of the psychobiological aspects of the evidence provided in a table:

Psychological Factors / Examples	Biological Factors / Examples

Discussion questions and report writing in logbook

A series of four to eight graded questions could be set for students to answer in their logbook, for example:

Connect: Identify any direct links between biological and psychological examples of stress provided in the evidence.

Explain: Why would the 2011 Tsunami be considered a major stressor? Why would it also be considered a catastrophe? Why would it be categorised as distress?

Apply:

1. Using your understanding of Selye’s General Adaptation Syndrome, explain how the Japanese people would have progressed through the relevant stages. Be sure to use any relevant evidence and reference the role of cortisol.
2. Using your understanding of Lazarus and Folkman’s Transactional Model of Stress and Coping, explain the psychological process of stress that the Japanese people would have gone through.

Propose: Using your understanding of context-specific effectiveness and coping flexibility, suggest some ongoing strategies that would help the Japanese people reduce the symptoms of their ongoing stress.

Activity 2: Evaluation of data

Students could be asked to write an extended response in which they are required to critically evaluate the evidence provided in Activity 1 by considering all or some of the following dot points:

• The type(s) of data obtained (qualitative versus quantitative)
• The reliability and validity of the data obtained
• Investigative procedures (interview) used to obtain the data
• Possible sources of bias within the data
• Any distinctions that can be made between scientific and non-scientific ideas.

Outcome 2

On completion of this unit the student should be able to apply different approaches to explain learning to familiar and novel contexts and discuss memory as a psychobiological process.

To achieve this outcome the student will draw on key knowledge outlined in Area of Study 2 and relevant key science skills on pages 12 and 13 of the study design.

Examples of learning activities

• Create a flow chart that clearly outlines the three processes of classical conditioning, identifying the unconditioned stimulus, unconditioned response, neutral stimulus, conditioned stimulus and conditioned response.
• Critically analyse the ‘Little Albert’ experiment; identify the elements of classical conditioning involved and discuss the ethical issues involved in conditioning a fear response in a young child. Describe two ‘sliding doors’ scenarios in which Little Albert receives or does not receive appropriate psychological intervention to reverse the conditioning effects.
• Discuss classic and operant conditioning; suggest why the term ‘conditioning’ is used instead of ‘learning’; explain why ‘conditioning’ is a form of ‘learning’.
• Role-play applications of classical conditioning to demonstrate understanding of the three-phase process.
• Discuss the topic: Is there a difference between reinforcement and reward?
• Explain how the principles of operant conditioning can be applied to pet training; identify ethical issues associated with training a pet and suggest how these may be resolved.
• Invite a dog trainer to visit your class to talk about how they use reinforcers when obedience training animals.
• Design and undertake an experiment to determine whether applause improves human or other animal performance; identify how the ethical issues associated with the experiment can be resolved.
• Investigate methods of toilet training / learning in young children and identify the type of conditioning and / or learning involved.
• Debate the effectiveness of punishment versus reinforcement when trying to modify a child’s behaviour.
• Participate in an activity to demonstrate classical conditioning, for example association of pupil dilation with a bell or buzzer.
• Simulate classical conditioning using a bell (the conditioned stimulus, CS) and sherbet (the unconditioned stimulus, UCS) to elicit salivation (the unconditioned response, UCR).
• Using the melody of your favourite song, write new lyrics to it that explain the key elements and processes in classical conditioning and / or operant conditioning and / or observational learning.
• Choose a familiar game or app and analyse it in terms of the consequences used in operant conditioning.
• Use examples to explain the difference between positive and negative reinforcement.
• Create a correlational study to investigate the relationship between use of store loyalty cards (as a form of positive reinforcement) and consumer purchasing behaviour.
• Brainstorm all the possible consequences that could be used to get a family member / friend to complete one of your household chores. Classify these consequences in line with the types of reinforcement and punishment used in operant conditioning.
• Simulate a token economy in your classroom. Decide on behaviours to be reinforced (e.g. standing to speak, singing answers and referring to the teacher as ‘Amazing one’) or punished (e.g. swinging on chairs, not having materials and talking to friends) and appropriate consequences (e.g. fake money, lollies or minutes for an early mark).
• Write a letter to the Transport Accident Commission (TAC) evaluating punishment and reinforcement strategies to address phone use while driving or young drivers speeding.
• Discuss the stages of observational learning (attention, retention, reproduction, motivation, reinforcement). Engage in an observational learning task such as folding a T-shirt or constructing an origami animal, and reflect on the relative importance of each stage of observational learning.
• Find examples of advertisements that highlight the power of observational learning (for example: TAC, Drinkwise, Respect campaign). Analyse the advertisements in terms of the stages of observational learning.
• Devise an effective way to try to teach peers a new skill (such as tying a necktie, folding a fitted bed sheet) by employing the elements of observational learning.
• If available, invite a local Koorie Elder to discuss kinship relationships and relationships to Country to understand how Aboriginal approaches to knowledge and learning are patterned on Country
• Engage with stories available at Aboriginal Culture - Culture Victoria (cv.vic.gov.au) to explore how Country is a system that encodes knowledge transmitted through relationships and expressed through modalities including song, dance, art, and objects.
• If available, participate in an activity delivered on Country, such as Indigenous walking tour in the Dandenongs - Melbourne | Wurundjeri to understand how Country is a system that encodes knowledge
• Use a yarning circle as a learning tool to enrich and promote shared discussions about Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander ways of knowing
• Use PhotoStory to outline the journey of a piece of incoming sensory information from when a person first pays attention to it until it is stored in long-term memory (based on the Atkinson-Shiffrin multi-store model of memory).
• Create a flow chart diagram that summarises Atkinson-Shiffrin’s multi-store model of memory.
• Identify the strengths and limitations of the multi-store model of memory.
• View one of the following films: The Notebook, Memento or 50 First Dates, and prepare a short report on the aspect of memory depicted in the film viewed.
• Use a Venn diagram to outline the similarities and differences between maintenance and elaborative rehearsal.
• Complete a ‘compare and contrast’ graphic organiser comparing sensory memory, short-term memory and long-term memory in terms of their function, capacity and duration.
• As a class, watch the re-creation of Sperling’s iconic memory test. Discuss the challenge Sperling faced in testing the duration of iconic sensory memory and the usefulness of the methodology he created.
• Devise a set of questions and answers from reading texts on the factors that influence a person’s ability and inability to remember information; put these into a ‘finger flipper / chatter box’ game that covers all these factors.
• 
  Conduct an experiment to demonstrate different processes involved in memory and to reflect on the reliability of memory.
  
• Create a model of the brain highlighting the brain regions involved in memory and their functions. Create a mnemonic for each region linked to function.
• Use acrostics or acronyms to encode and retrieve the areas of the brain involved in long-term memories.
• Use a Venn diagram to contrast long-term implicit and explicit memories, including the role of brain areas.
• View ‘Life Without memory: The Case of Clive Wearing’ and write a diary entry for a day in your life. Then, re-write the diary entry that shows the effects of having no memory.
• Recall a significant event in your life and write the event as a story in dot points. Classify the information in the dot points as containing semantic or episodic information. Were there any gaps in the story that could not be recalled? Were any parts of the story filled in with approximate guesses?
• Participate in a mindfulness session or visualisation and then rate your ability to vividly picture the prompts using a Likert scale. Collate and summarise the data.
• Investigate whether there is a correlation between these results and subject preferences for creative courses.
• Using a website such as The Conversation, find an example of contemporary research into aphantasia. Create a flow chart to summarise the method and main findings of the research.
• Carry out online research to find brain-imaging pictures of brains of people with Alzheimer’s disease versus healthy brains. Annotate the images to highlight the differences and the potential consequences in the experience of mental imagery.
• Create a folio of related experiments and activities exploring the relative effectiveness of various mnemonics.
• Create acrostic poems to assist in recall of memory terms in the study design.
• Apply the method of loci to tell the story of a piece of information making its way through the Atkinson-Shiffrin model.
• Create acronyms to assist in recall of learning terms in the study design.
• Using the resource Songlines investigate the songline of the seven sisters and explain how it increased encoding, storage and retrieval of information for Indigenous Australians.
• Create a Venn diagram comparing and contrasting the method of loci with songlines.
• Investigate areas of Indigenous significance in your local area and talk a walk (for example, using the Yalinguth app for a walk along Gertrude Street, Melbourne).
• ‘Indigenous cultures are dependent on their memories for everything they know. They use a whole suite of alternatives to literacy to ensure that the encyclopedia of knowledge they have built up over tens of thousands of years is maintained and constantly updated. Without this knowledge, the people simply would not have survived, physically or culturally’ (Neale, M and Kelly, L Songlines 2020). Discuss different ways that Songlines have enabled ongoing survival of Indigenous cultures.
• ‘Songlines are the means of storing and learning knowledges, ancient and modern. They are stories embodied in the land, sea and skies to be remembered and passed on through song, dance, art, ceremony and, most importantly, through attachment to Country’ (Neale, M and Kelly, L Songlines 2020). In line with this statement hypothesise neurological reasons for Songlines enabling rich memory encoding and retrieval.
• Show students a variety of examples of mnemonic resources and have them classify acronyms, acrostics, method of loci or songline.

Outcome 1

On completion of this unit the student should be able to analyse the demand for sleep and evaluate the effects of sleep disruption on a person’s psychological functioning.

To achieve this outcome the student will draw on key knowledge outlined in Area of Study 1 and relevant key science skills on pages 12 and 13 of the study design.

Examples of learning activities

• Discuss the strengths and limitations of techniques such as the use of sleep diaries and video monitoring in determining levels of consciousness.
• Visit a sleep laboratory or go online to learn about how an electro-oculargraph (EOG), an electromyograph (EMG) and an electroencephalograph (EEG) are used to identify states of consciousness.
• Divide an A3 sheet into three sections headed EEG, EOG, EMG; use the Internet to find examples of recordings of each of these and annotate each recording on your poster table to show how each may be interpreted in relation to REM and NREM sleep.
• Discuss reasons for sleep (as a form of consciousness) being considered a psychological construct. Brainstorm other areas that may also be considered a psychological construct.
• Differentiate sleep from other altered states of consciousness such as daydreaming, coma, alcohol induced and meditation.
• Complete a sleep diary over the course of a one-week period. Relate to data collection considerations including subjectivity, type of data and quality of data.
• Provide examples of times when video monitoring may be a more useful measurement tool compared to electroencephalography (EEG), electromyography (EMG) and electro-oculography (EOG).
• Design a system that uses a combination of electroencephalography (EEG), electromyography (EMG) and electro-oculography (EOG) technology to monitor drowsiness levels and alert shift workers or long-distance drivers when they are at risk.
• Produce a poster that shows the relationship between circadian and ultradian rhythms.
• Review the website ‘Sleep-Wake Cycle: Its Physiology and Impact on Health’ in terms of the key messages presented to readers. Prepare a single-page summary of key messages or a one-page infographic on an aspect of the sleep-wake cycle.
• Use to a teacher- or student-devised questionnaire to survey friends and family members regarding their sleep patterns. Report back to the class and discuss the amount of sleep required, the need for sleep and any observed changes to typical circadian rhythm for sleep.
• Design, test and evaluate a device to signal that someone has fallen asleep.
• Produce a process that individuals could use at night to try and increase their natural melatonin levels. Produce a different process that shift workers could use to adjust their melatonin levels in line with their shift work hours.
• Present an argument for delaying school start times for high school students based on circadian rhythms.
• Explore why core body temperature is often used to measure circadian rhythms.
• Predict how the circadian rhythms of astronauts on a spaceflight (non-24-hour light-dark cycle) would alter and the possible health related impacts.
• Construct a flow chart with visuals to show the role of the suprachiasmatic nucleus in regulating melatonin.
• Take the online Automated Morningness-Eveningness Questionnaire (AutoMEQ) Test and relate to internal biological mechanisms.
• Consider the misconception that napping during the day is the best way to catch up on partial sleep deprivation.
• 
  Conduct research to investigate sleep patterns across the lifespan. (see Detailed example 1)
• 
  Analyse a media article claiming links between a certain food, melatonin levels and sleep quality in terms of psychological theory and key science skills. Use the article as stimulus material to design a study to test the claims, and carry out fieldwork to investigate sleep patterns across the lifespan. (see Detailed example 2)
• Compare a typical sleep hypnogram for an infant, a child, an adolescent, an adult and an elderly person. Annotate features that are similar and features that are different across each age group.
• Annotate a graph of sleep across the lifespan, including brief explanations for the differences in total amount of sleep and proportions of REM and NREM.
• Consider the misconception that older people spend a considerable amount of their time sleeping (compared to adults).
• Read the investigation report Sleep at the helm: A case study of how a head coach sleeps compared to his team. Create a diagram to summarise the methodology and findings. Suggest methods to extend the research to examine the extent to which sleep impairs psychological state, decision-making or overall coaching performance.
• Complete a tri-Venn diagram showing how a person’s affective (emotional responses), behavioural and cognitive functioning can be affected by partial sleep deprivation.
• Undertake the Epworth sleepiness scale and consider the results in relation to the quantity and / or quality of your sleep. Suggest improvements where appropriate. Follow up the survey at a later date if appropriate. Discuss the use of self-reports in relation to research and evaluate the effectiveness of such methods in collecting data, including sources of bias.
• Investigate experimentally how the length of time spent awake affects the efficiency of the central nervous system.
• Carry out a correlational study to investigate the relationship between number of hours of sleep and cognitive ability by undertaking a test such as the Face Memory Game by Neuroscience for Kids.
• Outline the ethical principles and safety guidelines that would need to be considered when researching the effects on consciousness of one night of full sleep deprivation as a comparison to the effects of legal blood concentration of 0.05.
• Brainstorm the possible effects of partial sleep deprivation and then classify as affective, behavioural or cognitive.
• Construct a flow chart to show the main stages and findings of the Dawson and Reid (1997) controlled experiment comparing one night of full sleep deprivation to blood alcohol concentration readings.
• Identify the benefits and limitations of using a ‘within subjects’ or ‘between subjects’ experimental design to compare one night of full sleep deprivation to blood alcohol concentration readings.
• Write an informed consent form for a controlled experiment comparing one night of full sleep deprivation to blood alcohol concentration readings.
• Produce an informative poster to educate high school students on the effects of partial sleep deprivation.
• Create a persuasive PowerPoint presentation to inform drivers of the affective and cognitive effects of one night of full sleep deprivation as a comparison to blood alcohol concentration readings of 0.05 and 0.10.
• Discuss the strengths and limitations of using driving simulators to research the impacts of sleep deprivation on driving ability.
• Collect rosters of various organisations that involve shift-work and analyse them in terms of sleep-wake cycle shifts and their effectiveness in minimising the development of circadian phase disorders.
• Interview a shift worker to identify their coping mechanisms and strategies.
• Draw a diagram to show the difference between Delayed Sleep Phase Syndrome [DSPS] and Advanced Sleep Phase Disorder [ASPD].
• Provide a range of possible shift work timetables that could cause circadian rhythm sleep disorders. Identify whether Delayed Sleep Phase Syndrome [DSPS] or Advanced Sleep Phase Disorder [ASPD] is most likely to occur and suggest a bright light therapy regime that could be used as a treatment option.
• Read the media article New research into sleep disruption aims to make emergency workers safer and discuss the strengths and limitations of using a simulated shift schedule. Suggest controlled experiment designs that could be used to carry out the study and predict the results.
• Design and test a regime to improve your sleep hygiene.
• Design a case study methodology (including quantitative and qualitative data collection methods) to investigate the impact of a sleep hygiene program on a person's mental wellbeing.
• Convert the following research questions into testable hypotheses:
  
  • How does exposure to blue light before bedtime influence release of melatonin in VCE students?
  • What differences does coffee consumption in the evening have on sleep onset times?
  • For fastest sleep onset, what is the optimal time period between eating dinner and going to bed?
  • How does binge-drinking influence sleep maintenance in the night for university students?
  • What is the optimal temperature range for sleep onset in children?
  • Under which condition do teenagers sleep better: phone next to bed and turned on, next to bed and turned off, out of room and turned off?
    
• Create a different cartoon character to represent each zeitgeber. For each character add speech bubbles with related sleep hygiene hints.
• Design an animal model study to test the impact of an eating pattern (for example, larger morning versus evening meal, fasting, carbohydrate ratio) on daily rhythms in melatonin, core body temperature and heart rate.
• Take on the imaginary role of team manager for a sports team that must travel from Europe to Australia for a major qualifying game. As team manager you are responsible for designing a program to reduce the effects of jet lag and maximise player performance. Your team has its own section of a plane and a large budget to purchase devices.
• Draw a diagram to represent the two-way relationship between sleep and mental wellbeing.
• Use the ScienceDaily website to carry out a literature review on the relationship between mobile phones and sleep. Report on the methodology, results and conclusion of at least three studies.
• Explore The Other Shift website to find a blog post of interest. Identify links to psychological theory and comment on its accuracy and usefulness for shift workers.
• 
  Conduct an experiment to invistigate the role of melatonin in regulating sleep-wake patterns. (see Detailed example 3)

Detailed example 1

Investigation of sleep patterns across the lifespan

Aim

To compare patterns in the total amount of sleep in a 24-hour cycle across various age groups.

Introduction

Students investigate the relationship between age and the total hours slept by individuals of varying ages. The task requires students to access a small number of participants of different ages (for example: an infant, a child, an adolescent, an adult and an elderly person). Students are required to collect data, use evidence and transfer their findings to explain this relationship.

Science skills

Teachers should identify and inform students of the relevant key science skills embedded in the task.

Pre-activity preparation

The task follows class work on the importance of sleep, circadian and ultradian rhythms, patterns of sleep and theories of its purpose. A review of self-reports and the use of quantitative data may also be required.

Procedure

• Each class member surveys at least one participant in each of the age groups.
• Students should approach each potential participant and say ‘I am a VCE student doing a survey on sleep patterns as a learning activity; would you mind if I ask you a few short questions? This survey is entirely anonymous’. Note: if the participant is an infant or a child, the students will need to ask the participant’s parent this question.
• If the participant indicates a willingness to take part, ask ‘Could you tell me which of these age groups applies to you?  0–2, 3–12, 13–18, 21–64, 65+.’ Note: if the participant is an infant or a child, the students will need to ask the participant’s parent this question.
• Students then record the age group of the participant and ask: ‘For each of these questions, could you think back and give the average figure for the past week?
  
  1. On a normal day, how many hours did you sleep?
  2. On average, how many times did you wake up during each night?
  3. If you did wake up in the night, on average for how long did you remain awake?

Age group	Hours of sleep reported	Number of times awoken	Time spent awake
Infants (0–2)
Children (3–12)
Adolescents (13–18)
Adults (19–64)
Elderly (65+)

Results

Class members ‘pool’ their results and process the quantitative data obtained, using appropriate mathematical calculations and units (for example, descriptive statistics such as a mean). They organise, present and interpret the data using an appropriate table or graph.

Discussion questions and report writing in logbook

A series of four to six graded questions that address the data and the implications of the relationship between the total amount of sleep and patterns of sleep across the lifespan should be set for students to answer in their logbook, for example:

• Identify: What are the dependent and independent variables in your investigation?
• Explain: According to your data, how does the pattern of sleep change across the lifespan?
• Evaluate: Discuss any potential extraneous variables and how they have affected the data on sleep gathered? Suggest future improvements to address these if the investigation was to be repeated.  
• Propose: What further data could be gathered to investigate how patterns of sleep change across the lifespan? Outline a method for a further testing. 

Teaching notes

• It is important that students understand how to collate the data and perform any calculations. Some students may not, and teachers should lead students when collating the data and demonstrate some calculations; for example, the mean values for the first age group (infants) in the table.
• Further investigation gathering qualitative data about the quality of sleep, dysomnias and parasomnias could also be conducted.

Detailed example 2

Analysis of a contemporary media text and design of a related investigation

Aim

To analyse and evaluate a media article regarding sleep in relation to key science skills and psychological theory.

To use the article as stimulus material to design a study.

Background

This activity relates to numerous key knowledge points in Unit 4, Area of Study 2, including regulation of sleep-wake patterns by internal biological mechanisms, with reference to melatonin; and improving sleep-wake patterns with reference to eating and drinking patterns. The activity also links heavily to the key science skills. It would be best to run the activity at the completion of the area of study. The activity could be run as a structured class discussion or individual student entry into logbooks.

Read one of the following articles which claim a link between eating eggs and increased melatonin levels for a good night's sleep: 'Sleep experts say eggs are the secret to a good night's sleep' or 'This 50c staple is scientifically proven to help you sleep better'.

Questions for class discussion or individual student entry into logbooks

Connect and explain – Sleep psychological theory

• Identify links between the claims made in the article and sleep-wake patterns and sleep hygiene.
• Why may eggs be beneficial in improving sleep?
• Why might eating the eggs two hours before going to bed be important?
• Why might it be suggested to not have a large or heavy meal close to bedtime?

Evaluate – Key science skills

As presented in the article, would the information be considered opinion, anecdote or evidence?

As presented in the article, is the information scientific or non-scientific in nature?

What conclusion is made in the article and what are the limitations of this?

How does the concept of validity relate to the claims made in the article?

The article concludes with a link to a food industry website. How does this link to the ethical concepts of integrity and justice?

Create (Key science skills) – Design a study to test the claim made in the article that eating two eggs before bed increases melatonin and improves sleep

• What would be an appropriate investigation methodology to test the claim made in the article?
• How would you design and conduct an investigation to test the claim made in the article (consider sampling technique, procedures, measurement of variables)?
• What sort of data would you generate (qualitative or quantitative or both)?
• How would you minimise potential extraneous or confounding variables?
• How would you minimise potential sources of error or uncertainty?
• How would you ensure that the ethical guidelines of information consent, withdrawal rights and debriefing are followed?

Detailed example 3

Role of melatonin in regulating sleep-wake patterns

Aim

To apply key science skills to the analysis and evaluation of a generated set of primary data.

To deepen understanding of the role of melatonin in regulating sleep-wake patterns.

Background

This activity uses a generated set of primary data to explore key science skills and deepen understanding of the interrelated role between blue light and melatonin levels. It would be best carried out at the conclusion of the area of study.

Students are provided with a scenario and a set of data and they answer a series of discussion questions.

Example of a scenario with generated primary data

Amara is a university psychology student who conducted a study to test the influence of mobile phone use on melatonin levels. She recruited seven other university psychology students to take part in the study, ensuring that none of them were on melatonin medication or supplements. After reading the participant information sheet about the specific purposes of the study and signing a consent form, the participants were asked to record the number of hours spent on their phone after 5pm each night for one week. Participants who on average used their phones for more than 150 minutes per evening were categorised as the high user group. Those who used their phone on average for less than 150 minutes per evening were categorised as the low user group.

When designing the study Amara had a choice of two different branded melatonin test kits. To determine the most precise test she repeated each test herself three times within a ten-minute period around midnight on a single night. The results were as follows:

Table 1: Results of Amara’s testing of the two different branded melatonin test kits at midnight

	Test 1	Test 2	Test 3
Melatonin Testing Kit A	91	85	95
Melatonin Testing Kit B	80	81	79

The expected melatonin range based on healthy population studies are:

Time	Melatonin range pg / mL	Melatonin target range pg / mL
Midnight	40–150	95
6–8am	< 14	5

Once Amara had determined which brand of test kit to use, each participant was provided with one melatonin test kit and given the following instructions: Two saliva specimens are to be collected on Wednesday night. The first at midnight and the second in the morning between 6am and 8am. You must fast from 10pm the evening before taking the midnight saliva specimen. The midnight saliva specimen must be taken in a darkened room with low light, if possible, as bright light will reduce the production of melatonin.

Once the melatonin results were back from the laboratory, Amara presented the information as in the table below:

Table 2: Mean 7-day melatonin results for each participant at midnight and morning

	High mobile phone users				Low mobile phone users
	Participant 1	Participant 2	Participant 3	Participant 4	Participant 5	Participant 6	Participant 7
Midnight melatonin level	55	14	67	71	98	132	115
Morning melatonin level	3	4	0	3	5	7	6

Discussion questions

• With reference to circadian rhythms, explain why melatonin patterns naturally fluctuate between midnight and morning.
• Outline the link between blue light, melatonin levels and sleep-wake patterns.
• This study would be considered a correlation. Provide reasons for this and describe what this means in terms of causation between the variables.
• Identify the procedures that Amara has put in place to minimise errors and extraneous and confounding variables.
• Identify potential extraneous and confounding variables that have not been controlled.
• The expected melatonin range is based on healthy population studies. Outline what this means in terms of validity.
• Considering Table 1, identify the test kit with the greatest precision.
• Considering table 1, if the standard measurement for Amara is 90, identify the test kit with the greatest accuracy.
• Identify the set of results (Table 1 or 2). Which is a better measure of repeatability? Justify your response.
• Identify the set of results (Table 1 or 2). Which is a better measure of reproducibility? Justify your response.
• Considering Table 2, identify the measurements that are most likely to be considered outliers. Describe how may these affect the validity of the research.
• Appropriately graph the results of Table 2.
  

Outcome 2

On completion of this unit the student should be able to discuss the concept of mental wellbeing, apply a biopsychosocial approach to explain the development and management of specific phobia, and discuss protective factors that contribute to the maintenance of mental wellbeing.

To achieve this outcome the student will draw on key knowledge outlined in Area of Study 2 and relevant key science skills on pages 12 and 13 of the study design.

Examples of learning activities

• Resilience is often described as the ability to ‘bounce back’ from adversity. Brainstorm other analogies, expressions or visual representations that could be used to describe resilience.
• Interview a household member to gather qualitative information on their understanding of the meaning of resilience and the factors that increase resilience. Collate class data to identify similarities and differences in community understanding of resilience.
• Reflect on ways that the Covid-19 pandemic tested people’s resilience.
• Discuss the meanings of the terms ‘holistic’ and ‘multidimensional ‘and try to find examples of other things that could be classified as both.
• 
  Analyse and interpret the Victorian Government’s Balit Murrup: Aboriginal social and emotional wellbeing framework 2017–2027. (see Detailed example 1)
  
• Visit the Headspace Yarn Safe website to identify and record examples of information related to body, mind and emotions, family and kinship, community, culture, country, spirituality and ancestors.
• There is an increasing focus on building resilient communities (for example, the community-led group Resilient Lismore was set up in 2017 to assist with flood recovery efforts). Consider what a resilient community would look like (particularly after a natural disaster) and discuss the role of social support in assisting an individual to manage change and uncertainty.
• Read the article Australia needs to decolonise its mental health system and empower more Indigenous psychologists and answer the following questions:
  
  • What is the Social and Emotional Wellbeing model?
  • How is this model different to biopsychosocial conceptions of wellbeing?
  • What percentage of Australian psychologists identify as Aboriginal or Torres Strait Islander? Why is this problematic for Indigenous communities?
  • What changes are the Australian Indigenous Psychology Education Project (AIPEP) working towards, and how are each of these linked to the Social and Emotional wellbeing model?
• In 2017, The Australian Psychological Society made a formal apology to Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander people, acknowledging psychology’s role in ‘contributing to the erosion of culture and to their mistreatment’. Read a copy of this apology and discuss its importance in light of the Social and Emotional Wellbeing model.
• The Australian Institute of Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Studies (AIATSIS) and The National Health and Medical Research Council (NHMRC) publish ethical guidelines for working with Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander communities. Consider one of these documents in line with the ethical concept of respect.
• Organise guest speakers on the topic of mental health; begin with your school psychologist or counsellor and consider inviting local mental health workers.
• Organise an excursion to the Cunningham Dax Collection at The Dax Centre, Melbourne (art, creativity and education in mental health). Note: at least one accompanying teacher must have completed an authorised workshop prior to the visit.
• Using a specific example, explain how fear can be distinguished from phobia.
• Draw a continuum of mental wellbeing and list ways in which functioning in different areas (for example, social, emotional, cognitive) may vary at different points on the continuum.
• Representing mental wellbeing as a continuum is a conceptual model. Evaluate the usefulness of this model (compared to a binary model) and brainstorm other possible models for representing mental wellbeing.
• Use a tri-Venn diagram to explain how the biopsychosocial framework can be used to consider phobias.
• Create a mind map that outlines the influence of particular biological, psychological and social risk factors on the development and progression of phobias.
• In groups, select an example of a specific phobia to investigate in terms of the biopsychosocial framework; present the selected phobia to the class. Class members use a data sheet to record how the biopsychosocial framework can be used to understand and manage the selected phobia.
• Use the following case study summary of events related to classical conditioning and the development of a phobia to create a cartoon sequence that illustrates how the phobia developed and can be treated. Identify the neutral stimulus, the unconditioned stimulus, the unconditioned response, the conditioned stimulus and the conditioned response. ‘Vicky is a four-year-old child who is playing in the backyard with her sisters; she picks up a dandelion and just as she blows on the seed-head a basketball hits her hard on the head. Vicky is upset and bursts into tears. Years later, Vicky becomes agitated when she sees a dandelion and experiences an increased heartbeat, sweaty palms and rapid breathing’.
• Undertake research to investigate why some young children have a fear of Santa Claus when going on a pre-Christmas visit to a local shopping centre or community location. Develop a set of ‘handy hints’ for mothers planning to take their children to visit Santa Claus.
• Use pipe cleaners to create a neuron model and film a short video clip to explain the concepts of gamma-amino butyric acid (GABA) dysfunction and long-term potentiation in relation to development of a specific phobia. Extend the task by explaining the role of benzodiazepine agents (GABA agonists) in the management of phobic responses.
• Write an imaginary case study of a specific phobia. Include the phobic stimulus, initial negative experience(s) and phobic responses. Relate the case study to each of the biological, psychological and social influences that contribute to the development of specific phobias. Describe each evidence-based intervention in relation to the case study and comment on the potential usefulness and limitation of each intervention.
• Identify common myths about specific phobias which, in turn, contribute to stigma.
• Use a flow chart to illustrate how the process of systematic desensitisation can be used to treat a specific phobia; discuss why this management technique can be used for any example of specific phobia.
• Produce a brochure that could be used by someone with a nominated specific phobia to understand: the nature of their condition; the biological, psychological and social factors categorised as contributing factors and / or interventions involved in the development and management of the condition; and the options for treatment / management of the condition.
• Use the ‘Six Thinking Hats’ to examine the fear of dentists as a type of specific phobia; for each hat (White – Facts and Information, Red – Feelings and Emotions, Black – Critical Judgement, Yellow – Positive Judgement, Green – Alternatives and Learning, Blue – Big Picture), consider how a biopsychosocial framework is used to consider the influence of specific factors to the development of specific phobia as well as the use of particular evidence-based interventions in the treatment of specific phobia.
• Invent a phobia or consider an unfamiliar phobia (for example, students in a class select a different phobia from a hat); suggest possible contributing biological, psychological and social factors in the development and perpetration of the phobia; propose possible interventions for the management of the phobia, including biological, psychological and social treatments.
• Discuss the meaning of the term ‘evidence-based interventions’. Suggest lifestyle-based interventions that may not be evidence-based (refer to Beyond Blue A Guide to What Works for Anxiety – An Evidence Based Review).
• Investigate courses for overcoming fear of flying. Analyse the available online information to determine which evidence-based interventions are used.
• Create an informational poster on breathing retraining. Include the impact of phobic anxiety on breathing, the purpose of breathing retraining and examples of breathing exercises.
• Visit an Australian website that has information on specific phobias (such as Beyond Blue, Better Health or the Australian Psychological Society). Review the usefulness of the information as a psychoeducation resource for families / supporters. Make suggestions for improvement.
• Suggest research designs that could be used to investigate the effects of cognitive behaviour therapy on the management of specific phobia.
• Consider a media article such as ABC news 'How virtual reality exposure therapy is helping to treat phobias and paranoia' in light of the psychological theory of systematic desensitisation.
• Draw a diagram to highlight how cognition and behaviour can influence one another when using cognitive behaviour therapy as a treatment for specific phobias.
• 
  Conduct a case study analysis of the development and management of specific phobia. (see Detailed
  example 2)
  
• Create a mental wellness poster. Identify the characteristics of a mentally healthy person and biological, psychological and social protective factors that prevent the occurrence or re-occurrence of mental health disorders.
• Ask the school psychologist / welfare support / external consultant to conduct a workshop on how adequate diet and sleep, mindfulness meditation and social support can be used to cope with stress and maintain mental health.
• Explain why owning a pet can be a protective factor in maintaining mental wellbeing, including reference to contemporary research (for example Scientists Show Dogs Are a Wonderful Source of Comfort After a Tragedy).
• Evaluate and discuss the following workplace mental health management principles in terms of protective factors and resilience:
  
  • Start with the right attitude (self-talk counts).
  • Listen to others for perspective.
  • Don’t assume or attach meanings too quickly.
  • Let people help you.
  • Stand back and watch quietly as needed.
  • Be prepared to make mistakes.
  • Make your progress visible.
  • Have fun when you can!
• Identify and classify the benefits of adequate nutritional intake and hydration, on the maintenance of mental wellbeing.
• Analyse the SMILEs Trial (Deakin Food and Mood Centre) in terms of aim, methodology and real life relevance of the findings. Then complete a one-sentence summary of the investigation.
• Compare and evaluate two separate studies on the impact of hydration on mental wellbeing. For example: Drinking plain water is associated with decreased risk of depression and anxiety in adults: Results from a large cross-sectional study and Effects of Changes in Water Intake on Mood of High and Low Drinkers.
• Food insecurity can limit students’ nutritional intake. Prepare a pitch to a selected audience (for example, school council, local council) on the importance of adequate nutritional intake for mental wellbeing and make suggestions for improving access to nutritional food for all students.
• Decide whether the following questions would be most suited to a correlational study or a controlled experiment. Then design a study for one of the questions:
  
  • How do nutritional food offerings in school canteens influence students' attention and mood?
  • Is long-term sugar intake a factor that influences mood?
  • How do energy drinks compare to water as a hydration tool to maintain mental wellbeing?
  • Do sleeping patterns in childhood link to mental wellbeing in adolescence?
  • What is the relationship between hours slept and optimism?
  • Does a stress state lead to increases in people’s desire to eat comfort food?
  • How did lockdowns during the Covid-19 response influence wellbeing in primary school aged children?
• Draw a diagram to show the two-way relationship between sleep quality and mental wellbeing.
• Use a PMI (pluses, minuses, interesting) chart to analyse the usefulness of cognitive behaviour strategies in maintaining mental wellbeing.
• Consider ethical concepts and guidelines in the study of mental health research.
• Carry out an online search for unhelpful thinking styles (or thinking errors). Identify which ones you may fall into at times and develop a plan based on cognitive behaviour strategies to limit their impact.
• Discuss the potential benefits of mindfulness meditation and identify ways you could objectively measure whether it is meeting these benefits.
• Trial and compare three online mindfulness meditations to find which one leads to the greatest focused relaxation.
• Have a look at the literature review The relationship between organised recreational activity and mental health (Gillian Street and Ray James: Mentally Healthy WA Centre for Behavioural Research in Cancer Control, Curtin University). In relation to social support, summarise the reasons that organised recreational activity may be beneficial for mental wellbeing. Comment on the key features of a literature review as well as the usefulness of the presentation of the information.
• Write down a definition of ‘authentic’ in terms of relationships. Compare definitions and discuss in relation to the concepts of uncertainty and validity in psychological research. The introduction section of the paper Living the good life: A meta-analysis of authenticity, well-being and engagement may be a useful reference.
• Does a person have to be energetic to be energising? Discuss this question as a class using a think-pair-share activity.
• Read the article Technology for mental health in Australia and list five different technologies that have been developed to provide mental health support for people in Australia. Outline the benefits and possible risks of these technologies. Identify any gaps in the current technologies and propose new technologies that could be developed.
• The University of Sydney and the Australian Communications Consumer Action Network have produced and freely distributed a set of guidelines for mental health app development. Analyse the guidelines in line with psychological ethical considerations.
• Describe how cultural determinants of health are different from social determinants or individual characteristics.
• Draw a diagram to illustrate the relationship between self-determination, powerlessness, motivation, decision-making, resilience, strength and wellbeing.
• ‘Self-determination is an “ongoing process of choice” to ensure that Indigenous communities are able to meet their social, cultural and economic needs’ (Victorian Public Sector Commission). Research and discuss what this ‘ongoing process of choice’ means in a practical sense and explain why it is integral for maintaining wellbeing in ATSI peoples.
• In terms of validity and reproducibility, explain why it is important that assessment tools to measure wellbeing are developed and tested in consultation with Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander communities.

Detailed example 1

Analyse and interpret the Victorian Government’s Balit Murrup Aboriginal social and emotional wellbeing framework 2017–2027

Aim of activity

To deepen understanding of social and emotional wellbeing for Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander people and consider a contemporary framework that has been developed by the Victorian government to improve outcomes in this area.

Background

Balit Murrup means 'strong spirit' in the Woi-wurring language. The vision of Balit Murrup is to support Victorian Aboriginal people, families and communities to achieve and sustain the highest attainable standard of social and emotional wellbeing and mental health. The development of Balit Murrup: Aboriginal social and emotional wellbeing framework 2017–2027 is a key commitment under Victoria's 10-year mental health plan to support the social and emotional wellbeing of Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Victorians. The framework is presented as a 54-page document published by the Victorian Department of Health and Human Services.

Note: Teachers would benefit from reading through the entire report and having a full copy accessible (either downloaded or printed in hard copy). In most circumstances, students should be provided with specific pages and sections of the report that relate directly to the key knowledge included in the VCE Psychology Study Design. Depending on the school context, student cohort and individual teacher competency, student may be guided to consider other sections and information included in the report, provided that cultural safety can be supported and maintained at all times.

Suggested activities using Balit Murrup: Aboriginal social and emotional wellbeing framework 2017–2027

Activity 1: Graphic organiser of key concepts

Referring to the background information available at the Department of Health, as well as pages 1 and 8 of the framework, outline the development and vision of Balit Murrup. Using pages 24, 26 and 27 of the framework, students create a graphic organiser (for example, wheel diagram, bubble map, cluster diagram) to describe and give examples of the elements of social and emotional wellbeing for Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander people. Add an image or icon for each element to act as a mnemonic cue.

Note: The VCE Psychology Study Design only focuses on the influence of cultural determinants on social and emotional wellbeing. The other three determinants (social, political, historical) included in the outer ring of Figure 1 on page 24 are beyond the scope of the VCE Psychology Study Design. Depending on the teacher and student cohort, they may be considered for greater contextual understanding.

Activity 2: Connecting ideas

The framework ‘…embeds Aboriginal self-determination as the core principle to drive actions to improve the social and emotional wellbeing, resilience and mental health of Aboriginal people, families and communities…’ (Department of Health, 2021). Ask students to describe the meaning of self-determination and identify ways that self-determination enable and support social and emotional wellbeing (for example, see pages 8 and 14).

Provide students with a copy of ‘Appendix 2: Gayaa Dhuwi (Proud Spirit) Declaration’ (page 51). Annotate and discuss in small groups how the core principle of self-determination is reflected in the Declaration.

Consider how the dimensions ‘connection to culture’, ‘connection to land’ and ‘connection to spirituality’ (page 27) support and enable cultural continuity. Create a graphic organiser that identifies how cultural continuity and self-determination, as cultural determinants, are integral for the maintenance of wellbeing of Aboriginal Victorians.

Detailed example

Case study analysis of the development and management of specific phobia

Introduction

At this stage, students would have completed the following areas of the course: defining mental wellbeing, application of a biopsychosocial approach to explain specific phobia. Students are presented with a case study of an individual with specific phobia (refer to the case study in the learning activities related to Vicky’s phobia of dandelions as a further example to the case of Don’s claustrophobia provided below) that they are required to analyse.

Science skills

Teachers should identify and inform students of the relevant key science skills embedded in the task.

Activity 1: Case study scenario

Students are provided with a case study of a person who has a specific phobia. For example:

‘Donald (Don) is a 59-year-old male who works in a state government office as an accountant. He enjoys his work and the people he works with. He has worked for the government in this position, or similar positions, for the last 25 years. His salary is quite good and he has excellent benefits; however, recently he has been seriously considering retirement. In fact, he and his wife Barb have been talking about going on a road trip in their campervan when he does. Don’s main reason for retiring, though, is that the whole accounting department has recently been consolidated from several different locations. This had been done to improve efficiency. For Don, the problem with this consolidation is that he has a significant fear of small, enclosed spaces such as elevators (claustrophobia). So, when his office first moved, Don tried to use the stairs to get to his office but he found this very difficult because of his arthritic left knee. The combination of his fear and his physical problem led to him beginning to dislike going to work. So much so that he would ask Barb to call in ‘sick’ for him, which she became really concerned about. Despite recognising that his fear is irrational and out of proportion to the actual dangers involved in elevator travel, Don is still unable to stop avoiding travelling on elevators. In fact, Don’s claustrophobia is something he has suffered from for a very long time. It seems his problems began when he was a young child when his older brother locked him in his bedroom closet. It was done as a prank, but Don became extremely fearful, his heart was racing and he felt out of breath. He had what he now recognises as being a panic attack. Despite pounding on the door and begging to be let out, his brother only released him an hour later. Ever since that event he remembers avoiding enclosed spaces of all types and even as a teenager he had to have a light on in his bedroom at night.’

In small groups, students are provided a blank version of a BPS table and asked to identify any contributing factors in relation to the development of the specific phobia in the case study.

The Biopsychosocial (BPS) approach
Biological factors	Psychological factors	Social factors

Activity 2: Discussion questions

Contributing Factors

• Determine where you think the individual in the case study sits on the mental health continuum. Justify your placement, based on your understanding of the distinction between stress, phobia and anxiety.
• Choose one relevant biological contributing factor to the individual’s phobia and discuss its potential role in the development of their phobia.
• Explain the role of classical conditioning in precipitating the individual’s phobia.
• Discuss the role of operant conditioning in perpetuating the individual’s phobia.
• Identify and explain any specific environmental triggers of the individual’s phobia.

Interventions and / or Management

• Suggest a biological intervention and explain how it might benefit the individual.
• Explain how CBT could be used as a psychological management intervention for the individual.
• Using the language of classical conditioning, explain the process that would be involved in using systematic desensitisation as a psychological intervention for the individual.
• Discuss the importance of involving the individual’s family / supporters as a part of their therapy.

Teaching notes

It is important that students gain practice at applying the BPS to varying mental health case studies or scenarios. Initially, students may need guidance and could benefit from completing an initial analysis of a case study as a class or in small groups.

Outcome 3

On completion of this unit the student should be able to design and conduct a scientific investigation related to mental processes and psychological functioning, and present an aim, methodology and method, results, discussion and conclusion in a scientific poster.

To achieve this outcome the student will draw on key knowledge outlined in Area of Study 3 and the related key science skills on pages 12 and 13 of the study design.

Examples of learning activities

• 
  Develop skills in designing and conducting a scientific investigation related to mental process and psychological functioning, presenting findings in a scientific poster. (see Detailed example)
  
• Discuss the importance of developing investigable questions for scientific investigation in light of Albert Einstein’s quote: ‘The important thing is not to stop questioning’, Robert Half’s quote: ‘Asking the right questions takes as much skill as giving the right answers’ and Nancy Willard’s quote: ‘Sometimes questions are more important than the answers’.
• Comment, in terms of the nature of science, on Bill Gaede’s quote: ‘Science is not about making predictions or performing experiments. Science is about explaining’.
• Design and conduct investigations to answer the following questions:
  
  • Does using a reward when learning a new task affect learning?
  • Does using a punishment when learning a new task affect learning?
  • Does practice improve performance?
  • How does using a mobile phone affect dance moves?
  • How distracting are distractions?
• Devise an inquiry to investigate the effectiveness of different learning techniques (summarisation, highlighting or underlining, keyword mnemonic, elaborative interrogation, self-explanation, imagery for text, rereading, practice testing, distributed practice, interleaved practice) based on the work of Dunlosky et al (2013.
• Design and undertake an experiment to determine whether applause improves human or other animal performance; identify how the ethical issues associated with the experiment can be resolved.
• Design and conduct an experiment to determine whether experiences or incidents need to have a strong emotional component to be placed and stored as part of long-term memory.
• Apply coupled inquiry to develop and investigate questions related to memory for example:
  
  • Does using labels assist in the retention and recall of information?
  • What factors affect encoding and retrieval of information when playing the ‘Rumour Game’?
  • How important are cues in memory?
• Design and conduct controlled experiments to determine whether:
  
  • highlighting words or writing them down increases their recollection
  • recall of information is affected by the time of day at which information is learnt
  • different types of background music affect memorisation skills of students
  • eating breakfast improves memory
  • eating particular foods improves memory
  • people can more easily remember a series of numbers, words, patterns or colours
  • using a different type of font for a set of words improves their recall
  • using different coloured paper on which words are written improves their recall.
• Formulate hypotheses; then plan and undertake investigations to determine whether particular scents (lavender, rose, chocolate, peppermint, vanilla, white musk, lavender and citrus) increase capacity to remember a list of words. Extend the investigations to determine whether there is a gender or age difference in the capacity to remember words when subjected to different scents. Suggest a physiological mechanism or neural pathway whereby particular scents could increase a person’s capacity to improve their memory.
• Design and conduct an investigation to determine which method of information delivery (audio, visual, mnemonic, repetition, note-taking, cramming, use of flashcards, reading words aloud) is more effectively remembered, both in the short-term and after a longer period.
• Formulate a hypothesis and undertake an investigation to determine whether text colour affects how well information is recalled.
• Devise and undertake an investigation to determine whether certain types of animal pets (dogs, cats, mice, fish, birds) provide greater physical (for example, blood pressure) and mental health (for example, performance on the Penn State Worry Questionnaire) benefits to their owners. Explain how variables were controlled and identify extraneous and confounding variables that may affect investigation conclusions.
• Design an investigation to determine whether the ‘earworm effect’ (songs that get stuck in your head) is real. Modify an experimental design to investigate the aspects of songs that may cause the ‘earworm effect’.
• Access the research reported at dailymail.co.uk, news.com.au or sciencedaily.com to develop and test an investigable question related to the relationships between sleep and memory, or sleep and wellbeing.
• Design and conduct an investigation to determine whether binaural music is effective as a stress management technique (or as a means to induce faster sleep onset).
• Visit the website Spurious Correlations to discuss the key concept that correlation does not equal causation.
• Use a Venn diagram to distinguish between extraneous and confounding variables.
• A variable is considered to be confounding when it provides an alternative explanation to results; that is, an alternative explanation for the relationship between the IV and DV. This threatens the internal validity of a study. Apply this information to research examples, such as the following:
  
  • In a study looking at the effectiveness of mnemonic techniques on long-term memory one group learns about acronyms and acrostics through an interactive online session. Another group learns about the method of loci through a face-to-face small group discussion. Both groups are then provided with a list of terms to memorise using their technique. Over the next few weeks their long-term memory is tested at several points.
• For the following scenarios brainstorm possible techniques for primary quantitative data generation; then discuss the challenge that exists in measuring subjective experiences:
  
  • stress levels
  • sleep quality
  • cognitive development
  • attitude towards electric vehicles
  • mental wellbeing.
• Annotate target board images to visually represent the concepts of accuracy and precision.
• Test heart rate via a number of different means (for example, fingers on wrist, fingers on neck, heart rate monitors). Compare the results as a basis for discussing the concepts of accuracy, precision, random errors, systematic errors, personal errors and reproducibility.
• Use a Venn diagram to distinguish between the concepts of accuracy and precision.
• Use a Venn diagram to distinguish between the concepts of reproducibility and repeatability.
• As a class, create a set of guidelines to ensure that health, safety and ethical guidelines are met when carrying out practical research activities.
• Formulate a hypothesis and design an experiment to test whether people can pay attention to two things at the same time.
• Design and conduct an experiment to test the claim that watching goldfish has a calming effect on people.
• Devise an inquiry to test the statement that singing is an effective form of stress release.
• Develop a hypothesis and undertake an investigation to determine whether there is a relationship between colour and mood.
• Devise an inquiry to determine whether people display similar emotional responses to subject matter presented in different forms; for example: photograph, painting, sketch, description, poetry, song.
• Formulate a hypothesis and design an experiment to test whether chewing gum: improves concentration; decreases stress.
• Provided with a set of data to visually recognise and identify outliers, discuss how these outliers would affect the validity of research and ways to manage through statistical analysis.
• Bennett, Baird, Miller, and George (2009) conducted an fMRI on the brain of a dead salmon and activity was detected in the brain cavity. Discuss this research in terms of uncertainty and validity.
• Hold a class discussion about the purpose of logbooks in psychology research.
• Make a checklist of features that should be part of a scientific logbook (for example, dated and chronological).
• Identify some of the assumptions or limitations of the following data generation techniques:
  
  • Elite athletes self-rating their fitness levels
  • Using heart rate as a measure of stress
  • Using observation to judge a person's level of empathy
  • Using students’ English school reports to assess suitability for a trade
  • Asking managers to report on their own decision-making rationale during recruitment.
• Access the research report on phobia’s effect on the perception of a feared object and evaluate the investigation methodology including any ethical implications. Design a different way to test the idea that the more afraid a person is of a spider, the bigger that individual perceives the spider to be.
• Access a report of research undertaken related to a possible correlation between time spent outdoors and reduced incidence of high blood pressure and depression ​and identify and evaluate the limitations of the research study, including a discussion of repeatability, reproducibility and validity. Suggest modifications to the research methodology to improve the validity of the conclusions drawn from the results.
• Make a checklist of things to consider when assessing the validity of a piece of psychological research.
• Comment, in terms of the importance of scientific communication, on Anthony Hewish’s quote: ‘I believe scientists have a duty to share the excitement and pleasure of their work with the general public, and I enjoy the challenge of presenting difficult ideas in an understandable way’.
• Carry out a web search for ‘poor data representations’. Look at several sites and create a list of important considerations when representing data visually (for example, always clearly label each axis).
• Download and print prepared scientific posters (for example, from the University of Texas at Austin website. Work in groups and use a provided set of criteria to evaluate investigation aims, methodologies, data presentation, conclusions and effectiveness of scientific communication for each poster.
• Hold small-group discussions in class to identify the strengths, weaknesses and areas for improvement of a range of scientific posters; for example, those found at the University of Texas at Austin website. Collate and reflect on class results and provided online evaluations to develop a set of ‘do’s’ and ‘don’ts’ for constructing a scientific poster.
• Debate the topic: ‘It is more important, in presentations, to impress than to inform’.
• Scientific posters are typically used at large conferences. With this in mind, discuss why poster conventions, word brevity and clear data analysis in graphs / tables is important.
• Do a web search for ‘scientific poster’ images. Identify similarities in headings, layout and content. Identify differences in the posters and consider the features that enhance effective communication.
• When looking at studies from a textbook or other sources, write a communication statement reporting the key finding of the investigation as a one-sentence summary (as per the scientific poster requirement).
• Discuss the real-life implications of theories and models by discussing questions such as: For whom are these findings most relevant? How can these findings be used to advance society? Is there the potential for these findings to be applied in an unjust manner?

Detailed example

Scaffolding student designed scientific investigations

The type of guidance and the amount of support students will need to complete the Outcome 3 Scientific Investigation will vary greatly. Depending on your cohort, students may have already completed similar tasks and have a strong understanding of the scientific investigation process and the requirements of the scientific poster. Alternatively, you may have students who bring limited skills and knowledge or are completely new to the subject.

Early on in the year, one of the first things to do is estimate the knowledge and skills students currently have, both with and without guidance (their zone of proximal development). Based on this teachers can establish areas of focus (for example, formulating hypotheses or data analysis) and then review the unit to identify where such areas can be purposefully introduced. Then a series of collaborative learning activities, tools and reference resources can be developed to build up skills and knowledge. As student skill level increases the guidance can be gradually withdrawn.

A scaffolded approach may include:

Using a range of tools for students to access when developing knowledge and skills

For example: a template for writing hypotheses, a table to compare the advantages and limitations of different research designs, informed consent template, poster with some sections pre-populated as a cloze activity

Using a range of reference resources

For example: de-identified previous student posters, teacher created poster examples, single-page guide to descriptive statistics, guide to accessing secondary information including useful websites and advanced google searching tools, guide to reading and interpreting journal articles

Creating checklists with the class

For example: essential features of a hypothesis, things to consider when determining validity, graph and table requirements (for example, heading, axis labelled)

Teacher modelling a task, or sub-tasks, and then students working with teacher and each other to become more skilled

For example: teacher modelling how to turn a question into a hypothesis and then students working with each other and then individually to complete the same task.

For example: following a short classroom-based activity or experiment the teacher models how to complete data analysis such as identifying outliers, working out the mean, thinking aloud through the most appropriate way to present data and then completing a table or graph.

For example: teacher modelling how to read and interpret journal articles (for example, identify the specific question the research was trying to answer, scan the paper, focus on the abstract for a succinct summary, draw a diagram of the method).

Moving from structured teacher-led investigations to student-centered open investigations

Initially a teacher-led inquiry is carried out within the classroom and students complete a poster template with some sections pre-populated as a cloze activity (for example, experiment demonstrating the speed of neural transmission).

The next step may involve a structured inquiry with the teacher presenting a question and providing a prescribed procedure for the class to carry out. Students sample participants outside the classroom and then collate results before completing a poster template with reduced guidance (for example, a study to investigate the question ‘Does regular consumption of fermented foods influence stress levels?’).

The next step may involve a guided inquiry whereby the teacher chooses the question for investigation and the students work in one large group, or several small groups, to work with the teacher to decide how to proceed with the investigation. They may then complete the logbook entries and poster template with little, if any, guidance.

Finally, the students may carry out an open inquiry that begins with a student’s question, followed by the student (or groups of students) designing and conducting an investigation or experiment and communicating results.