Central role of critical thinking

Critical thinking is an essential component of VCE Extended Investigation. It is directly taught within the study and is implicit in all the work students undertake.

The purpose of critical thinking is for students to move beyond mere acceptance of information, towards a critical and careful consideration of the nature of different types of argument and reasoning. These skills are essential in each phase of their investigation.

Critical thinking is used by students as they select, design and investigate their research field. Students learn to identify elements of argument and develop contextualised understanding of the way that arguments and evidence function, both generally and when associated with their investigation. In particular, students should understand the development of argument within a range of sources, critically exploring their connections and areas of congruence and divergence.

Students are expected to understand the processes they have undertaken in their own investigation and critically reflect on them in both their written and oral work.
 

Inquiry-based and student-directed learning

VCE Extended Investigation requires a specific approach to teaching and learning because the investigations are individually student-directed within the boundaries set by the study design and associated advice, the school context within which the investigation takes place and the limited expertise of the student. The study balances the direct teaching of the necessary skills to undertake a research investigation with the application by students of these skills to their own self-directed investigation. It follows that teachers are not expected to be experts in the research areas in which their students are engaged.

Educated non-specialist audience

Students are required to present their findings to a non-specialist audience so they should use language that is accessible. As no two investigations are alike, the level of language adjustment required will vary from student to student. Some may find they are required to spend considerable time adjusting language for an educated non-specialist audience.

The key knowledge and skills in both Areas of Study 2 and 3 of Unit 4 refer to use and adaptation of ‘language and key ideas to suit an educated non-specialist audience’. However, it is advisable for students to begin adjusting their language early in the investigation process, preferably during Unit 3. Even as students begin to familiarise themselves with the specialised terminology associated with their field of research, teachers can provide them with a range of strategies to practise explaining their research to a range of audiences and this should continue throughout the year.

In VCE Extended Investigation, students develop research skills and a sense of the ownership of their investigation. The teacher’s role is to facilitate this experience for the students. They can assist them by:

• providing a range of frameworks, thinking strategies and writing approaches that can be applied to different research contexts
• providing the structures and parameters that guide students through the development, management, and conduct of their own investigation and assisting them to keeping within these, including agreed timelines
• acting as facilitator, advisor and trouble-shooter when students arrive at an impasse in their research (for example, if a student’s data collection approach does not work out as expected)
• assisting students to come to their own decisions about how best to deal with problems confronting them and decide upon their own course of action
• discussing the role and responsibilities of being a researcher
• providing structures and opportunities for students to reflect on their progress
• providing tools and strategies that enable students to identify cognitive biases based on their own experiences and motivations, and which may impact the types of information they value, the sources of data they collect, and the inferences they may draw.

Throughout the study, students will engage with a range of materials and tasks that require the application of critical thinking skills. Evidence of the development of each student’s critical thinking skills must be documented through a range argument analysis and evaluation exercises within their VCE Extended Investigation Journal.

Critical thinking is an implicit and explicit component of Units 3 and 4. Practical exercises in critical thinking should be undertaken very early in Unit 3 Area of Study 1 and continued into Unit 4 Area of Study 1. It is particularly relevant for students to apply critical thinking skills in the design of their research question; their analysis of existing literature, methodological design and data; and in discussion of their findings and conclusion. A critical perspective will develop iteratively as student knowledge of their area deepens and analysis and evaluation is undertaken for different purposes. Teachers can support students through explicitly tailoring critical thinking exercises to different stages of an investigation process, which also introduces concepts and strategies that form the foundation for broad feedback on individual investigations.

Research and writing support

The teacher’s role as facilitator and advisor becomes more evident as students transition from the planning stage to the actual investigation. Teachers continue to monitor and support each student to ensure that their investigation is progressing, and that it remains manageable and within any defined and discussed boundaries of research area, time and resources.

Alongside this, structured regular classes need to continue so that students have the opportunity to learn, develop and demonstrate the key knowledge and key skills of the outcomes that inform and scaffold the development of their investigation.

This contact time is also essential for the teacher to authenticate students’ work and encourage them to maintain their motivation throughout the course of the year.

• report or writing structure
• the use of academic conventions, including referencing
• clarity of ideas
• justification of ideas
• design and conduct of an investigation
• development of ideas and argument
• adjustment of language for an educated non-specialist audience.
  
  Feedback should not take the form of annotated written directions to students at the word or sentence level. Unacceptable forms of feedback may:
   
• require students to make word or sentence level changes
• redraft sections of work on a student’s behalf
• provide solutions to writing issues.

For example, a teacher may indicate that the main idea of a particular paragraph is unclear and use questions to assist the student in determining and clarifying the core idea. Teachers should subsequently refrain from working with the student to adjust the paragraph.

The use of writing models and samples is also an important strategy for providing feedback in VCE Extended Investigation. Teachers should use writing samples and models that demonstrate the issues being encountered in students’ own work and draw on these in both whole class teaching and individual conferencing to support students in identifying and taking action on problems in their written work.

Overcoming difficulties

Unpredictable factors may disrupt the progress of a student’s investigation. These may be beyond the student’s reasonable control; for example, the research not proceeding as planned, the student having trouble sourcing willing participants, or collected data producing unexpected or contradictory findings.

Difficulties may also arise as a result of matters that are considered to be within a student’s reasonable control. For example, a student may disregard early guidance without clear reasons, or they may not have managed their time well, or failed to make a consistent effort. When formulating the evaluation and conclusions of their investigation, some students will need to discuss the difficulties they encountered. Throughout their literature reviews, it may be useful for students to contribute to a collective list of the various reasons given by researchers explaining inconclusive results. Professional researchers may report contradictory data or equipment failure but not poor time management or lack of motivation. Teachers should assist students in understanding the type of difficulties that are appropriate to discuss in their own written reports and oral presentations.

Regardless of the difficulties students face, as a result of matters within or beyond their control, it is important that they receive guidance from teachers about possible challenges, complications and limitations. Difficulties create opportunities for critical reflection; they can result in important learning experiences that inform future endeavours in this study and beyond.

Effort and motivation

Sustaining student motivation over the duration of an investigation can be challenging. Teachers can expect that students will oscillate between periods of uninterest and passion about their research area, which may or may not reflect the quality of their progress.

It is important to keep students engaged by helping them set realistic targets for each lesson, week, month and term. Lessons should be structured to enable students to accomplish something towards their own work; for example, identifying relevant terminology, learning ways to summarise readings, making informed decisions about how to express themselves and their ideas.

When student motivation is low, teachers should encourage them to engage with smaller achievable tasks. Teachers may be able to spark motivation through tasks such as formatting documents, researching appropriate bibliographic conventions, or searching news websites (local, national and international) for up-to-date items about their area of research.

Teachers can motivate students by encouraging them to maintain a steady and consistent effort with their investigation. These efforts can be emphasised by integrating achievement milestones into the research process. This may help students who are challenged by the deceptive distance of final due dates. It may also encourage highly enthusiastic students to balance efforts across their studies, build in reflection time and plan ahead instead of immediately moving on to the next task.

It is important for students to keep a record of all their work so that their final report is a consolidation of the breadth of work undertaken throughout the year. As an example, if teachers discuss with students the benefits and disadvantages of different research methods to help them justify their individual selected method, a record of this discussion may provide a clearer research purpose for their final report. Incremental achievements will aid students in writing a more effective final report that represents their engagement with their research area.

Celebrating achievements

Students’ achievements can be celebrated by cultivating an atmosphere of collegial endeavour within the classroom. Teachers can foster expertise and ownership of knowledge within the classroom by encouraging students to talk about their experiences, successes and challenges. There are opportunities for whole group activities in this study, particularly in Unit 3 where students can collaborate in their learning.

Student work can also be celebrated within the wider school community through presentation events. Some students may also wish to present their research in the local community and this should be encouraged. However, to ensure fair and unbiased assessment of their work, students cannot release it to the general public or in any forum that may result in feedback that could form a breach of rules until after the assessment period has concluded.

Conducting Research
 

Conducting research for the VCE Extended Investigation involves students selecting a research area; developing and refining a rigorous research question and research method/s in the context of the selected area; and collecting data and evidence to develop a written report and oral presentation. The topics in this section reflect this process and are inter-related:

• Selection of research area
• Designing a research question
• Sourcing academic information
• Mentoring
• Selection of research method/s
• Research ethics
• Lodgement of selected research question with the VCAA
• Research project management

At the centre of the VCE Extended Investigation is a rigorous, focused and meaningful research question. The research question drives the investigation and must provide the opportunity to demonstrate the highest level of achievement as described in the assessment criteria and performance level descriptors. Questions that are too narrow will not allow this, but neither will a question that is too broad or beyond the skills and abilities of a VCE student. Achievable investigations align with the parameters of the study and these parameters affect all aspects of conducting research. There are practical parameters such as the time and resources, as well as academic and ethical parameters aligned to the requirements of the study and the skills and background of the VCE student.

Designing a research question

The research question is developed in the context of the selected area of research. The research question drives the investigation and so must be well written, refined, meaningful and focused.

Students need to maintain their research question as the focus of their research at all times and continually refer back to it. Any adjustments to the research question should be given critical consideration and justified in terms of the criteria, and broader considerations such as avoiding duplication with other VCE studies.

The parameters of the study, in particular, the criteria for developing suitable research questions listed on page 10 of the VCE Extended Investigation Study Design (also listed and annotated below), should guide activities associated with formulating, refining and justifying research questions.

The question is substantial and significant

Students should identify and respond to a gap in the academic literature but not to the level of significance expected in tertiary level research. Engaging with literature is a key aspect of this criterion but too little literature does not necessarily indicate research opportunities for students, and the reasons for gaps should be carefully considered. Further, students do not necessarily have to focus on contentious issues or debates to establish significance. Significance refers to being of likely interest to other researchers in the field in principle, recognising that the student investigation will not be to publishable standard. A substantial question is one where the answer is not obvious at the outset and one that allows the student to demonstrate the highest levels of achievement commensurate with the level of a VCE study and developmental maturity of the student. Substantial does not necessarily mean broad in focus – the question should be as specific as possible while being linked to something of significance within a broader context. More advice can be found in the sourcing academic information section below.
 

The question is focused and contained in scope

A research question that is clear and precise helps to control the research. It will enable a strong line of sight to the design of data collection and other aspects of research that will address the question and is closely linked to it. An indicator of focused wording is that another researcher who may wish to exactly undertake the research would do so with little or no variation. The question must elicit more than a narrative, expository, descriptive or oversimplified response. Where relevant, it should use terminology that reflects the discipline underlying the investigation and avoid ambiguity.

The question should qualify or establish focussed elements or parameters of the research such as concepts, jurisdictions, groups of people, or time periods. Scope of study refers to the limits of the research the student is conducting. When thinking about the scope of a study, students should try to limit the boundaries of the research in order to develop a precise answer to the question. Scoping of research includes the set of reasons and arguments put forward to justify why the research will contain some evidence or data and exclude others. Another way of putting it is to think of scoping as the act of defining the space in which students will generate evidence to answer the research question.

The question aims an impartial stance

The answer or findings of a research question should not be presupposed, and a student should critically reflect on the wording of their question to ensure it does not reflect a particular bias or stance. How this is specifically managed will depend on the discipline underlying the investigation, for example drawing on well-established academic criteria rather than individually constructed criteria or developing an understanding of the distinction between what might be involved in responding to a personal challenge versus a public issue with its wider range of perspectives, contexts and so on. In some cases, students will be able to develop a hypothesis associated with their research question, that is, a tentative claim or statement.
 

The question can be addressed by systematic and sound research

The question must lend itself to detailed and sophisticated exploration through established research methods in order for the student to be able to meet the outcomes of the study and provide the opportunity to demonstrate the highest levels of achievement. The section on research methods below contains more detailed advice.

The question and method/s are consistent with ethical research guidelines

Advice on complying with responsible and ethical research guidelines is in the section on research ethics below.
 

The student can gain access to appropriate and relevant primary and secondary sources

In relation to the research question itself this refers to ensuring it is answerable and that evidence can be gathered and justified. The sections below on sourcing academic information and mentoring contain detailed advice.
 

The research is practical, realistic and manageable within the available time and resources

All students will have particular constraints such as due dates for task submission and the context of a school setting, while other constraints will depend on the individual student and their area of interest. Practical constraints may affect the framing of concepts within the question such as time periods or demographic groups or geographical areas. Realistic considerations include accounting for the strengths of the student and their level of competence as well as whether a sophisticated positive conclusion is likely to be found given the constraints of the study.

The question and research methods are likely to produce a useful result

The question should accord with the motivation and aim of the investigation, such that the findings will enable the student to discuss what they have learnt through their investigation in the context of the identified gap in the literature.

The question is capable of sustaining extended inquiry

Students should aim to develop a balance of complexity and scale within research question. A question that is too simple, narrow or too small to sustain a detailed investigation will limit that capacity to develop and expand upon all skills and knowledge in the study.

The question is likely to enable the student to achieve all outcomes in the study

The above guidelines for designing a research question indicate suitability for achievement of all the outcomes of the study. The question should elicit possibilities for development of a rationale, design, planning, critical thinking, reporting and presentation of the research.
 

Selection of research area

It is imperative that students select an appropriate area of investigation as early as possible in the study. This might involve them narrowing several areas of interest to the most suitable topic or developing a rigorous and suitable investigation from an area they are strongly interested in but uninformed about. Areas of interest could arise through reflecting on their curiosity about topics encountered in the classroom or outside the classroom in sources such as podcasts or wider reading, extra-curricular activities or pursuits outside school. Academic reading should also be undertaken to identify a gap in the literature and establish the context for an identified area of interest.

Setting clearly defined parameters will help to control the scope of the investigation and assist the student to be pragmatic and realistic about the scope and potential outcome of their area of interest. Broadly, this involves aligning VCAA documentation (that is, the study design, the support materials and other documentation on the study page) with the student’s area of interest, practical constraints and the student’s level of expertise and developmental maturity. The student should be made aware of research ethics in relation to what is in and out of scope before they commence selection of a research area. The research ethics section below contains specific advice to guide the scoping of the research area. Further, students should be made aware that they cannot duplicate topics in another VCE study that they have already undertaken or are currently undertaking; such that work could be submitted as part of both studies, that is, student work can only be submitted for credit in only one study.

To support students in selection of their research area and in their development as researchers, teachers will need to provide questions such as:

• Why do I want to do research in this area?
• What useful results or findings have been yielded in this research area already?
• What current opinions or ideas do I have about this area?
• Can I conduct research in this area while staying in the defined parameters set by my teacher?
• Do I have the appropriate skills and background knowledge to manage an investigation in this research area?
   

Selection of research method/s

Possible research methods for consideration include:

• survey
• systematic literature review
• interview
• focus group
• observation
• experiment
• secondary data/source analysis.

There is no one research design to suit all investigations. The research method(s) selected by each student should fit the scope, focus and aims of their investigation, allow for ethical gathering of evidence, elicit high quality findings, and where relevant, reflect the discipline underlying the investigation. When selecting a research method, the source of evidence should also be taken into account; for example, whether it is intended to work with adult citizens, current school students, children under five years, animals, dangerous or toxic substances or undertake a systematic literature review. The source should be selected only when there is low or negligible risk.

Students should be encouraged to begin justifying their choices from an early stage. If a research question undergoes refinement, research methods should also be reviewed to assess whether alignment to the aims of the investigation and the practical parameters of the investigation still holds.

Teachers should outline the range of established research methods available, which will assist students to critically compare research methods and to develop, explain and justify a research design appropriate for their investigation. Teachers can assist students to consider both the appropriate and inappropriate applications of each method, their broad strengths and weaknesses, any assumptions that may be involved and their capacity to yield good quality quantitative or qualitative data given the practical, ethical and academic constraints of the investigation as a VCE level study. A key source of understanding of methods will be relevant academic sources that demonstrate methods appropriate for the discipline underlying the investigation.

Students may need assistance to maintain a balance between practicality and rigour in their research design. For example, school-based data collection may be considered practical, but selection of student populations based primarily on the researcher’s ease of access may compromise the investigation’s rigour and/or pose an unacceptable risk given the nature of the intended prompts. On the other hand, students should be actively discouraged from undertaking large-scale surveys. There may be rigour in such an investigation, but the related data collections would be impractical within the parameters of the study and beyond the skill level of a VCE student. Consideration should be given to supplementary methods or alternative methods to resolve difficulties, for example to access longitudinal data through secondary sources or to interview an expert who has worked with the relevant demographic.

Further advice on research methods can be found in the following section on Research ethics.
 

Sourcing academic information

Students learn about the key arguments and developments in their research field as a result of synthesising information from a wide range of literature. This may include academic publications (book chapters, journal articles, conference papers), print and electronic media. It is preferable for students to engage with a range of literature by a variety of authors, thereby gaining a breadth of knowledge rather than comprehensively reading one or two lengthy texts. If students are having difficulty finding literature, it may mean that their research area or question requires refining.

Teachers should help students to develop their capacity to critically evaluate different types of material and to identify the most appropriate information sources for their investigation. Sources may include organisations (including educational, private and not-for-profit), government bodies, and researchers and writers in (or perhaps external to) a research field.

When looking for information students should consider the reliability of material, the evidence and the source (both primary and secondary). The level of intellectual and theoretical rigour differs within publications, organisations and research sectors. The reliability of material may depend on the publisher, the author’s standing in the academic community and/or the currency of information in the field. Students should also consider whether or not the material has been peer reviewed (i.e. read and evaluated by other experts in the field of study), is widely accessible, identifiable and durable, and whether it requires cross-referencing.

At an early stage in the investigation students should familiarise themselves with the resources within their school, at the local library and in the local community. This could be done as a class activity very early in the year and may establish some practical boundaries regarding access to resources. Students may also access resources and databases at other libraries such as the State Library of Victoria – online or in person.

Students and teachers should also explore the expertise available in the global community via the internet, which offers a range of research options, including Google Scholar and Academic Journals. Open-access resources are usually available free of charge but many academic journals or databases such as JStor do charge for access. Some community libraries subscribe to selected journals and some university libraries will allow VCE students to register.

Accessing certain journal articles and texts can sometimes present a challenge. Teachers should help students to develop workable, practical and pragmatic options for research connected with their individual interests.

Mentoring

A mentor is not a necessary or compulsory requirement for the study; however, some students may find it useful to have the support of a mentor during their investigation. Teachers should be aware of the aims, rationale and parameters for using a mentor. The Extended Investigation Journal must be used to record the involvement of the mentor in the development of the student’s investigation. Often a mentor is best utilised during particular times of the research process when a student encounters an impasse or deadlock in research progress (most often this takes place in the mid stages of the research process). A mentor may be provided by the teacher or sourced independently by the student. Mentors should be briefed on their responsibilities, including not giving undue assistance and maintaining a critical distance from the investigation. For further information, refer to the VCE Extended Investigation Authentication documents.
 

Research ethics affects the conduct of research at the macro level through selection of the research area and identification of research methods as well as the micro level, for example in the drafting of specific text for informed consent. Therefore, consideration of research ethics and building student understanding of research ethics is iterative.

All student investigations must be low or negligible risk to participants, the researcher and the wider community and environment as relevant. In supporting students to identify a suitable research area and research method(s), consideration should be given to include other teaching staff, school leadership or school community members in the school’s ethical evaluation process. Research ethics is guided by the relevant ethical codes, documents and websites on pages 6–7 of the study design as well as community standards and the school’s duty of care and associated policies and obligations. The support materials supplement these documents but do not replace them.

Ethical considerations in the selection of the research area and research methods

Research ethics begins with the selection of the research area and its focus and the selection of research methods.

Teachers should make students aware of broad areas of research and research methods that are typically well suited to a VCE level investigation and advise against research that is inappropriate for secondary school students.

As a general guide, the following are typically associated with low or negligible risk, however the specific proposed focus and approach may elevate its risk level, and so schools should still assess, monitor and manage risk:

• Research that is developmentally appropriate for a VCE student and commensurate with their level of expertise
• Topics that reflect community standards and have a positive focus, for example to identify factors that promote an area of wellbeing rather than a focus on diagnosed mental health disorders or illnesses; or a focus on safe driving rather than reckless driving
• Non-clinical experiments with human subjects involving non-sensitive topics, for example a scientific experiment focusing on strategies to improve cognitive retention rather than to analyse causes of anxiety regarding academic success
• Non-sensitive topics and questions and activities associated with collecting data, particularly on individual experiences, and where sensitivity may be an issue in the selection of alternative method/s, for example using interviews with experts instead of a survey
• Use of secondary data that does not disclose personal information
• Research design that ensures confidentiality and anonymity for the researcher but where people under 18 are involved, the identity is known to the teacher or school counsellor in case follow up is required
• Research design plans for further ethical practices informed by the relevant ethics code such as informed consent.

The following advice outlines the nature of sensitive or otherwise inappropriate research areas and methods that should be avoided, however it is not exhaustive and an individual risk assessment should be undertaken:

• Topics, questions or activities that are perceived by the participant or wider community as contrary to community standards, private or stressful such as research into sexual practices, experiences of sexual abuse, death or dying, illness, grief, pregnancy, mental health illnesses and disorders, body image, violence, drug use, experiences of discrimination or other serious social or economic difficulties; or that could be seen to promote values contrary to community standards such as racism, sexism, transphobia and so on
• Topics, questions or activities that are insensitive or distressing for a particular school or community context, for example an investigation about a disaster undertaken within disaster affected regions
• Questions or activities that may elicit illegal, incriminating, or embarrassing information or information that may affect the participants’ standing in the community or be defamatory
• Topics that focus on illegal or illicit activities
• Questions or activities that may bring the researcher into unsafe conditions or induce physical or social conflict or otherwise endangers the student, participants or wider community
• Psychological or medical studies which may raise privacy and expertise concerns or are invasive; in particular where the student intends to undertake psychological analyses or evaluations for which they are not qualified and topics that focus on mental health illnesses and/or disorders
• Animal experimentation
• Research involving biological hazards
• Investigations into vulnerable minors or adults
• Research from which the student will develop a personal financial reward/interest or research that infringes intellectual property rights or could lead to the infringement of intellectual property rights when the research findings are reduced to writing or recorded in another format.

Ethical considerations in the detailed development of the research methods

Once a research area and research methods within scope are identified and ethical practices planned for, further ethical considerations take effect in the implementation of these. Where relevant, teachers should carefully monitor the implementation of research methods involving living participants using the relevant ethical codes and duty of care as a guide. Before submitting to the VCAA, teachers should ensure that each proposal:

Each student’s broad research question and method/s are submitted to the VCAA in term 1 through VASS (see VCAA Administrative dates and assessment schedule. VCAA Administrative dates and assessment schedule.

• clearly expresses the focus of the research, in particular to qualify or establish elements of the question such as jurisdictions, groups of people, time periods or specific interpretations of broad concepts
• as far as practicable reflects the other criteria for research questions on 10 of the study design.

An important note on submissions lodged with the VCAA

When perusing a submission, the VCAA considers the potential for duplication with other VCE studies and alignment of the submission with the criteria for research questions on page 10 of the study design. The VCAA identifies potential duplication issues that the school should monitor, and may in addition provide feedback on some research submissions regarding scope and alignment to the research question criteria, however notwithstanding, the school is responsible for supervising the design and implementation of student research.

In constructing feedback on a submission, the VCAA does not consider ethical considerations that the submission may give rise to and feedback on a submission must not be construed as definitive of any ethical considerations relating to the submission. Schools remain responsible for ensuring that research questions and methods comply with all relevant research ethical codes and requirements.

Teachers will find that the students’ investigations require monitoring at different times, according to their individual research programs. Establishing realistic and efficient ways of communicating and overseeing all students will be essential.

The VCE Extended Investigation Journal, maintained by students, helps teachers ensure each student’s work is their own. This also provides a mechanism for the teacher to track the progress of each investigation.

The key knowledge and skills of VCE Extended Investigation are underpinned by the need for students to develop and demonstrate research project management skills. Teachers need to teach the skills of organisation and research management. Consider:

• skills in file management and file naming
• note-taking templates
• folder structures
• online cloud-based storage systems
• skills in using programs such as Word and Excel.

Students need to keep track of documents and learn different ways to link and organise ideas. Consider:

• mind-mapping apps or websites
• visual planners
• bibliography and citation tools or software (the References tab in Word may be useful).

Students need to break down tasks into manageable and realistic sections, and develop timelines for their independent work: Consider:

• calendars which incorporate task alerts
• task lists
• visual planners

Employability skills

The VCE Extended Investigation study provides students with the opportunity to engage in a range of learning activities. In addition to demonstrating their understanding and mastery of the content and skills specific to the study, students may also develop employability skills through their learning activities.

The nationally agreed employability skills* are: Communication; Planning and organising; Teamwork; Problem solving; Self-management; Initiative and enterprise; Technology; and Learning.

The table links those facets that may be understood and applied in a school or non-employment related setting, to the types of assessment commonly undertaken within the VCE study.