Advice for teachers -
Latin

Cambridge Latin Course, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge.

Allen, WS 1978, Vox Latina: A Guide to the Pronunciation of Classical Latin (2nd ed.), Cambridge University Press, Cambridge

Ayer, M 2014, Allen and Greenough’s New Latin Grammar for Schools and Colleges, Dickinson College Commentaries, Pennsylvania

Francese, C 2020, Core Latin and Ancient Greek Vocabularies, Dickinson College Commentaries, Pennsylvania (available online at Dickinson College Commentarties)

Gildersleeve, BL & Lodge, G 1963, Latin Grammar, Macmillan, London (available online at Gildersleeve's Latin grammar)

Glare, PGW 1982, Oxford Latin dictionary, Oxford University Press, Oxford

Logien, University of Chicago (online dictionary, available at: Logeion)

Masterman, KC 1967, A Latin word list, Macmillan, Melbourne

Morwood, J 1999, A Latin Grammar, Oxford University Press, Oxford

Thesaurus Linguae Latinae, Bayerische Akademie der Wissenschaften (online dictionary, available at: Thesaurus Linguae Latinae (TLL))

Woodcock, EC 1991, A New Latin Syntax, Bristol Classical Press, Bristol

Cambridge Latin Grammar 1992, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge

Collins Latin Dictionary and Grammar (2nd ed.) 2016, HarperCollins Publishers, Glasgow

Collins Gem Latin Dictionary (3rd ed.) 2018, HarperCollins Publishers, Glasgow

Langenscheidt Pocket Latin Dictionary Latin-English, English-Latin 1992, Gardners Books, Eastbourne

Morwood, J 1999, A Latin Grammar, Oxford University Press, Oxford

Morwood, J 2005, Pocket Oxford Latin Dictionary, Oxford University Press, Oxford

The Latin Library (Latin texts)
This website provides a wide range of Latin authors’ works including, amongst many, Virgil and Cicero.

Poetry in Translation (translations of Roman poets, and Suetonius)
This website provides translations of a range of classic Latin texts.

Perseus Collection (Latin texts and English translations)
This website contains texts from a wide range of Latin authors and includes grammatical and historical annotation.

Lacus Curtius (Latin texts and English translations)
This website contains texts from a wide range of Latin authors as well as a variety of secondary sources.

Classical Association of Victoria

This list is presented as a series of ideas for teachers. It is not intended to be exhaustive or prescriptive but merely to give teachers ideas as springboards for their own selections. Note that a text when adapted might be suitable for Unit 1, while the same text unadapted may be suitable for Unit 3. The text for Unit 4 will be a common one for all students set by the VCAA.

Seen texts – Unit 1

Teachers can choose which text their students will study in Unit 1 for the seen text area of study. The number of lines to be studied is at the teacher’s discretion, but approximately 200–250 lines (taking a line of the Aeneid as an example of a standard line) are recommended to fit the demands of the course within the time limitations. The text can be taken from one work or a number of works, perhaps grouped around a theme. Teachers can choose a text that has already been adapted, adapt one themselves or choose texts of a simple enough nature to need little adapting, depending on the readiness of their students. Possible texts include:

Adapted texts/anthologies:

• Cambridge Latin Anthology 1996, Carter, A & Parr, P (eds.), Cambridge University Press, Cambridge
• Oxford Latin Reader 1997, Balme, M & Morwood, J (eds.), Oxford University Press, Oxford

Texts that are readily adapted by teachers:

• Caesar, The Gallic War: Caesar’s famous account of his own campaign in Gaul, Britain and Germany, written in a clear and direct style. While the battle scenes can become repetitive, good selections can be made from the invasion of Britain, the bridge across the Rhine and the siege of Alesia.
• Quintus Curtius Rufus, Life of Alexander the Great: a biography of the Macedonian conqueror, written in a direct and engaging style.
• Livy, The History of Rome: care will need to be taken when selecting passages as Livy can be difficult at times. Suitable sections include some of the famous events from early Rome that were crucial in shaping the Roman identity (Romulus founding Rome, the Rape of the Sabine Women, Horatius at the Bridge, Capitoline Geese etc.)
• Nepos, Life of Hannibal: A biography of the great Carthaginian general, from his childhood and actions in Spain to the Second Punic War and afterwards.
• Augustus, Res Gestae Divi Augusti: Augustus’ own summary of his life’s achievements, written in a direct, simple style and revealing much about the ‘spin’ Augustus placed on the events leading to his elevation as princeps and his long rule.

Seen texts – Unit 2

Teachers can choose which text their students will study in Unit 2 for the seen text area of study. The number of lines to be studied is at the teacher’s discretion, but approximately 250–275 lines are recommended. In Unit 2, there should be at least one prose text and one poetry text. As there is a requirement to teach hexameter in Unit 2, teachers should choose an author whose work includes hexameters for at least part of the poetry study. For the prose text, teachers might use texts such as those given in ‘Texts that are readily adapted’ above, but with less adapting than would be necessary in Unit 1.

Possible poetry texts include:

• Catullus, the Poems (especially 3, 5, 7, 8, 11, 13, 46, 51, 69, 70, 79, 83, 85, 86, 87, 101)
• Martial, Epigrams (especially 6.60, 2.38, 1.10, 3.26, 10.47)
• Horace, Satires (especially I, ‘travel’; II, ‘town mouse and country mouse’)
• Ovid, Ars Amatoria (especially 1.89–160 ‘theatre and amphitheatre’)
• Ovid, Metamorphoses (especially 1.68–150 ‘the Ages of Man’; 8.183–235 ‘Daedalus and Icarus’)
• Virgil, Aeneid (must be a different selection from the text set for Unit 4). Teachers may choose to create a selection taken from a number of books focused on a particular theme or character (for example, ‘fate’, ‘Turnus’).
• Combination texts, such as a collection of short poems by Catullus, Martial and Ovid about everyday life in Rome, or comparisons of the same story, such as Virgil’s treatment of Orpheus and Eurydice (Georgics II) with Ovid’s treatment from the Metamorphoses (Book X).

Seen texts – Unit 3

Teachers can choose which text their students will study in Unit 3 for the seen text area of study. The number of lines to be studied is at the teacher’s discretion, but approximately 300–325 lines are recommended, taken from one work or a number of works. When choosing the text, teachers should bear in mind the assessment requirements and make sure that any text they choose can fulfil those requirements. The following ideas for study are all well suited for the assessment requirements:

• Cicero, In Catilinam: Cicero’s prosecution of the notorious revolutionary Lucius Sergius Catilina. This text explores the complex politics at play when the Roman republic was reaching breaking point.
• Cicero, In Verrem: Cicero’s prosecution of the corrupt governor of Sicily, Gaius Verres. A text rich in contextual allusions, it also gives insight into the difficulties of Rome as an imperial power.
• Cicero, Pro Caelio: Cicero’s defence of his protege Marcus Caelius Rufus is really an excuse for an attack on the character of Clodia Metelli. Full of literary and historical allusions, this text is of particular interest to students who have studied Catullus’ Lesbia poems.
• (Theme) The Emperor Claudius: combine selections from Suetonius ‘Divus Claudius’, Tacitus Annals XI, Seneca Apocolocyntosis, Papyrus Trismegistus 66432 and the Lyon Tablet. The texts all present different interpretations of Claudius’ troubled life and reign.
• Horace, the Odes: deep, densely written reflections ranging on lighter topics of love and friendship to the nature of the new Rome under Augustus (the ‘Roman Odes’).
• Juvenal, Satire III: harsh criticism of life in Rome in the 2nd century AD, with many of the issues of Juvenal’s time reflecting our own. Juvenal’s style is quirky but rewarding.
• Juvenal, Satire X: a critical examination of Romans’ values, centred on the question of ‘what should we pray for’, using examples from history and mythology, with a strong Epicurean undertone.
• Persius, Satires: poems from the age of Nero, critiquing Roman society from a Stoic point of view.
• Pliny, Letters: Pliny the Younger wrote a large number of letters on a range of subjects that illustrate Roman life and also give unique insights into political administration and events in Roman history: for example, Pliny’s correspondence with Tacitus about the eruption of Vesuvius, and with Trajan about the administration of Bithynia, including dealing with Christians.

Seen texts – Unit 4

The text for Unit 4 will be a common one for all students set by the VCAA and announced in the VCAA Bulletin. Approximately 320 lines will be set for study, taken from a single book of the Aeneid, but it is expected that students will be familiar with the rest of the book and the poem as a whole.

No edition will be mandated as the set text; teachers should consider available editions and choose the ones that suit their students’ needs the best (a selection is given below). Many editions are pitched at a university level, and while these may be unsuitable for student use, they may be of use to teachers.

Translations of the Aeneid

Virgil 2003, Aeneid, West, D (ed.), Penguin Books Ltd, London Kline, AS 2002,

Virgil: The Major Works, Poetry in Translation

Commentary and discussion of the Aeneid

Horsfall, N (ed.) 2013, Virgil, Aeneid 6: A Commentary, De Gruyter, Berlin

Camps, WA 1969, An Introduction to Virgil’s Aeneid, Oxford University Press, Oxford

Harrison, SJ (ed.) 1990, Oxford Readings in Vergil’s Aeneid, Oxford University Press, Oxford

Fuhrer, T 1989, ‘Aeneas: a study in character development’, Greece and Rome, vol. 36., no. 1, pp.63–72

Gransden, KW 1990, Virgil: The Aeneid, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge

Mackie, CJ 1988, The characterisation of Aeneas, Scottish Academic Press, Edinburgh

Martindale, C (ed.) 1997, The Cambridge Companion to Virgil, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge

Pöschl, V 1970, The Art of Vergil: Image and Symbol in the Aeneid, Ann Arbor Paperbacks, Ann Arbor

Putnam, MCJ 1965, The Poetry of the Aeneid, Cornell University Press, Ithaca

Putnam, MCJ 2011, The Humanity of Heroes: Studies in the Conclusion of Virgil’s Aeneid, Amsterdam University Press, Amsterdam

Putnam, MCJ 2011, Virgil’s Epic Design: Ekphrasis in the Aeneid, Yale University Press, New Haven

Quinn, K 1968, Virgil’s Aeneid: A Critical Description, Routledge, London

Stahl, HP & Fantham, E (eds.) 1998, Vergil's Aeneid: Augustan epic and political context, Duckworth, in association with the Classical Press of Wales, London

Williams, RD 1973, Aeneas and the Roman hero, Macmillan, London

Scansion

Cooper, CG 1952, An introduction to the Latin hexameter, Macmillan, Melbourne

Nussbaum, GB 1986, Vergil’s Metre – A Practical Guide for Reading Latin Hexameter Poetry, Bristol Classical Press, Bristol

Raven, DS 1998, Latin Metre, Bristol Classical Press, Bristol

White, HAB 1960, Latin Scansion for Schools, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge

Editions

Aeneid I

Virgil 1971, Aeneidos: Liber Primus, Austin, RG (ed.), Oxford University Press, Oxford

Virgil 1947, Virgil: Aeneid I, Gould, H & Whiteley, J (eds.), Macmillan, London (reissued by Bristol Classical Press)

Virgil 2010, Virgil: Aeneid I, MacLennan, K (ed.), Bristol Classical Press, Bristol

Virgil 1972, The Aeneid of Virgil: Books 1–6, Williams, RD (ed.), Macmillan, London

Aeneid II

Virgil 1964, Aeneidos: Liber Secundus, Austin, RG (ed.), Oxford University Press, Oxford

Virgil 1947, Virgil: Aeneid II, Gould, H & Whiteley, J (eds.), Macmillan, London (reissued by Bristol Classical Press)

Virgil 1999, Virgil: Aeneid II, Jordan, RH (ed.), Bristol Classical Press, Bristol

Virgil 1972, The Aeneid of Virgil: Books 1–6, Williams, RD (ed.), Macmillan, London

Aeneid IV

Virgil 1955, Aeneidos: Liber Quartus, Austin, RG (ed.) Oxford University Press, Oxford

Virgil 1947, Virgil: Aeneid IV, Gould, H & Whiteley, J (eds.), Macmillan, London (reissued by Bristol Classical Press)

Virgil 1972, The Aeneid of Virgil: Books 1–6, Williams, RD (ed.), Macmillan, London

Aeneid VI

Virgil 1977, Aeneidos: Liber Sextus, Austin, RG (ed.), Oxford University Press, Oxford

Virgil 1946, Virgil: Aeneid VI, Gould, H & Whiteley, J (eds.), Macmillan, London (reissued by Bristol Classical Press)

Virgil 2003, Virgil: Aeneid VI, MacLennan, K (ed.), Bristol Classical Press, Bristol

Virgil 1957, P. Vergilius Maro: Aeneis Buch VI, Norden, E (ed), B.G. Teubner Verlagsgessellschaft, Stuttgart [in German]

Virgil 1972, The Aeneid of Virgil: Books 1–6, Williams, RD (ed.), Macmillan, London

Aeneid VII

Virgil 1977, Virgil: Aeneid VII–VIII, Fordyce, CJ (ed.), Oxford University Press, Oxford

Virgil 1972, The Aeneid of Virgil: Books 1–6, Williams, RD (ed.), Macmillan, London

Aeneid VIII

Virgil 1977, Virgil: Aeneid VII–VIII, Fordyce, CJ (ed.), Oxford University Press, Oxford

Virgil 1976, Virgil: Aeneid Book VIII, Gransden, KW (ed.), Cambridge University Press, Cambridge

Virgil 1972, The Aeneid of Virgil: Books 1–6, Williams, RD (ed.), Macmillan, London

Aeneid X

Virgil 1998, Vergil's Aeneid, 10 & 12: Pallas & Turnus, Boyd, BW (ed.), Bolchazi-Carducci, Illinois

Virgil 1946, Virgil: Aeneid X, Gould, H & Whiteley, J (eds.), Macmillan, London (reissued by Bristol Classical Press)

Virgil 1991, Vergil: Aeneid X, Harrison, SJ (ed.), Oxford University Press, Oxford Virgil 1990, Virgil: Aeneid X, Jordan, RH (ed.), Bristol Classical Press, Bristol

Virgil 1973, Virgil: Aeneid VII–XII, Williams, RD (ed.) Macmillan, London

Aeneid XII

Virgil 1998, Vergil's Aeneid, 10 & 12: Pallas & Turnus, Boyd, BW (ed.), Bolchazi-Carducci, Illinois

Virgil 1950, Virgil: Aeneid XII, Gould, H & Whiteley, J (eds.), Macmillan, London (reissued by Bristol Classical Press)

Virgil 1953, Virgil: Aeneid XII, Maguinness, WS (ed.), Methuen and Co Ltd, London

Virgil 2012, Virgil: Aeneid Book XII, Tarrant, R (ed.), Cambridge University Press, Cambridge

Virgil 1973, Virgil: Aeneid VII–XII, Williams, RD (ed.), Macmillan, London

This list is presented as a series of ideas for teachers. It is not intended to be exhaustive or prescriptive but merely to give teachers ideas as springboards for their own selections. Collections tend to be made for the UK market, and teachers may find that unseens set for the General Certificate of Secondary Education (GCSE) are too easy, while those set for A Level are too hard. Of the collections given below, Kennedy’s is of the right standard and length, and his 120 prose unseens provide good ground for the teacher to make selections.

Another alternative is for teachers to make their own collections. They can use the texts openly available on the Latin Library website, for example, and find suitable passages. Teachers can bring passages down to 90 words (the approximate length of unseens in the examination) by translating the first or last lines of a longer passage; this also gives the students some context. This is a long-term task and teachers should expect to take years to build up a stock of unseen passages.

Collections

Henderson, HA and Baty, CW 1929, A Progressive Course of Latin Unseens, Oxford University Press, Oxford

Hyde, R 1998, Latin Unseen Translation, Bristol Classical Press, Bristol

Kennedy, EC 1951, Latin Unseens from Roman History, Macmillan Education, London

Morford, MPO 1960, Latin Unprepared Translation, Longmans, Green and Co, London

Taylor-Briggs, R 2000, Via Plana: Graduated Readings in Latin, Bristol Classical Press, Bristol

Tingay, G 1973, Comprehendite, Longmans, Green and Co, London

Young, BWM 1962, Via Vertendi: A Latin Unseen Course, Longmans, Green and Co, London

Scansion is a key skill for the understanding of Roman poetry. There are many different metres, but in VCE Latin students are expected to be able to scan hexameters, as used by Virgil in the Aeneid.

The first discussions of scansion were in Sanskrit and distinguished between syllable quantity (which were termed ‘light’ and ‘heavy’) and vowel length (which were termed ‘short’ and ‘long’). This distinction between vowel and syllable was blurred by Greek writers, and in the Middle Ages this was further confused; this has persisted to the current day (Allen 1978, pp. 89–92). This has led to the emergence of two different methods of scanning poetry, which lead students to largely the same conclusion but by different paths.

Both methods are equally valid in VCE Latin; the only practical difference in result is the quantity of the final syllable. For example, a line of poetry might end in the word portat. In the ‘Two Consonant’ method, because the vowel ‘a’ is short, the foot would be designated a trochee. In the ‘Light / Heavy Syllable’ (also known as the ‘Open / closed syllable’) method, even though the vowel ‘a’ is short, the syllable is marked long because it ends in a consonant – so the foot would be designated a spondee. In VCE Latin both would be marked as correct. However, not making a decision – leaving the final syllable blank, marking it with both a breve and a macron, or a question mark – should be avoided. Note that in many cases there is no dispute about the quantity of the final syllable, such as when it ends with a vowel; then, in both methods, the length of the vowel will determine the quantity of the syllable.

Method 1: Two consonant

There are three basic rules for this method:

1. A diphthong is long.
2. A vowel coming before another vowel in the same word that is pronounced separately will be short. Exceptions are mainly Greek proper nouns.
3. A vowel followed by two or more consonants (not necessarily in the same word) will be long, but not if a vowel ends the word and the next begins with two consonants. A naturally short vowel may be either short or long before br, cr, dr, fr, gr, pr, tr e.g. pătris. Remember that x and z count as two consonants, and h does not count as a consonant. Remember that i before another vowel may be the equivalent of j. Remember that y is a vowel and needs to be scanned.

Final vowels

• Final -a is short: for example, nominative, vocative singular first declension and nominative, vocative, accusative plural of all neuter nouns and adjectives. Exceptions: ablative singular first declension; singular imperative of first conjugation; adverbs.
• Final -e is short. Exceptions: ablative singular fifth declension; singular imperative second conjugation; adverbs from second declension adjectives, except beně and malě.
• Final -i is long. Exceptions: mihi, tibi, sibi and ibi, which may be short or long; ubi.
• Final -o is long. Exceptions: egŏ, duŏ, modŏ.
• Final -u is long.
• A vowel before a final -c is long, except ăc, něc.
• A vowel before a final -b, -d, -l, -m, -n, -r, -t is short, except fūr, nōn, sōl.
• Final -as, -es, -os are long. Exceptions: imparisyllabic nouns such as milěs; second singular present of sum and its compounds; the adjective divěs; Greek nominative and accusative plurals (for example, Cyclopěs).
• Final -is is short. Exceptions: dative and ablative plurals of first and second declensions; second singular present indicative fourth conjugation; second person singular of a present subjunctive (for example, sīs, possīs, velīs); when the accusative plural of a third declension noun is -is rather than -es.
• Final -us is short. Exceptions: genitive singular, nominative, vocative, accusative plural of fourth declension; the nominative singular of imparisyllabic third declension nouns (for example, virtūs).

BUT remember that all these short final syllables will be lengthened where Basic Rule 3 applies.

Hexameters

Each line of Latin hexameter is divided into six feet.

• Two long syllables is called a spondee.
• A long and then two short syllables is called a dactyl.
• A long and a short syllable is called a trochee.
• The first four feet can be dactyls or spondees in any combination.
• The fifth foot is (almost) always a dactyl.
• The sixth feet can be a spondee or a trochee.

Steps to scan a line of hexameter

1. Mark in any elisions.
2. Mark off any long vowels, using Basic Rules 1 and 2.
3. Mark off any short vowels, using Basic Rule 2.
4. Start with the 5th and 6th feet.
5. Work backwards for the rest of the line.
6. Mark in the main caesura(e).
7. Write foot numbers under each foot.

Method 2: Light / heavy syllables

Syllable division

Latin scansion is centred on the syllable, so students need to be able to divide words up into syllables correctly.

• A syllable contains one vowel sound. This could be a vowel (a, e, i, o, u, y) or a diphthong (ae, ai, au, oe).
• ‘i’ can be a vowel or a consonant.
• ‘u’ can be a vowel or a consonant, but usually books write a consonantal u as a v. When u follows q, it is a consonant (it gives the w sound in qu); sometimes when u follows g it is a consonant (for example, sanguis).
• A syllable starts with a consonant if it can, even if that means borrowing one from the previous word; this is called liaison (ignore h – the Romans probably scarcely pronounced it at all).
• If there are two consonants, they should usually be split. The exception is when combinations – such as tr, pl etc. – are used to start common Latin words; in this case, keep them together. Note that some consonants are really two sounds. Try writing x as cs and z as ds.

Syllables can be either light or heavy. A light syllable is one that takes a fraction shorter to say. A syllable is light if:

1. it ends in a vowel; and
2. the vowel in it is spoken short (ă, ĕ, ĭ, ŏ, ŭ).

A heavy syllable is one that takes a fraction longer to say. A syllable is heavy if:

1. it ends in a consonant; or
2. the vowel in it is spoken long (ā, ē, ī, ō, ū); or
3. the vowel in it is a diphthong (ae, au, ai, eu, oe).

Hexameters

Latin poetry is comparable to musical notation. Each line is divided into ‘feet’ instead of bars. Each foot takes approximately the same amount of time to say.

In a hexameter, there are six feet.

• Two heavy syllables is called a spondee.
• A heavy and then two light syllables is called a dactyl.
• A heavy and a light syllable is called a trochee.
• The first four feet can be dactyls or spondees in any combination.

• The fifth foot is (almost) always a dactyl.
• The sixth foot can be a spondee or a trochee.

Steps to scan a line of hexameter:

1. Mark in any elisions.
2. Divide the line into syllables.
3. Mark off any heavy syllables.
4. Start with the fifth and sixth feet.
5. Work backwards for the rest of the line.
6. Use a dictionary to help with vowel length.
7. Mark in the main caesura(e).
8. Write foot numbers under each foot.

Common to both methods:

Elision

When the Romans read poetry (and possibly in everyday speech) they elided some words – that is, they merged two words together.

An elision happens when:

The vowel at the end of the first word disappears; it is written in brackets and is not pronounced. For example, conticuere omnes becomes conticuer(e) omnes. It has no impact on the quantity of the syllable. (Students do not need to know prodelision, where the vowel in the second word is elided, frequently occurring with the verb est; they can treat all examples as elision.)

Caesura

Technically, any break between words is a caesura. However, each line needs a small break where the poet can pause for breath if need be – this is referred to as the main caesura. It can occur in the second, third or fourth foot, usually after the first syllable in the foot. The symbol for a caesura is two vertical lines: ||.

There will often be more than one option for where a caesura can be placed. Students should read the line and try to see where there is a pause (that is, where there is a logical place for a break). Remember that the Romans had no punctuation, so modern punctuation is often placed where an editor has found a caesura.

Just as a bricklayer will try to ensure that the joints between two rows of bricks do not line up – it weakens the wall – so too will a poet try to make sure that the ends of words and the ends of feet do not line up. When this does happen, it is called diaeresis and can make a line sound jangly and disjointed.

Scansion irregularities

Arsis: where a vowel is artificially lengthened.

Fifth foot spondee: the fifth foot is almost always a dactyl, but on very rare occasions Virgil has a spondee instead. This gives the line a strange, offbeat feeling.

Hiatus: where there should be an elision, but there isn’t. For example, O hominum should elide, but then the whole word O would be lost.

Hypermetric lines: where an elision carries from the end of one line to the start of the next. These are very rare; metre normally ends with the line and restarts for the next line.

Monosyllabic ending: when the last word of a line is a one-syllable word (makes the line feel abrupt).

Synizesis: where a poet counts two vowels as one. This might reflect quirky pronunciation. For example, Virgil sometimes treats the ei in deinde as one sound.

Unfinished lines: Virgil left several lines unfinished; most likely he intended to come back and complete them but died before he could.

Accent and ictus

Every Latin word had its own natural stressed syllable (accent), and the first syllable in any foot was also stressed (ictus). Roman poets could choose to have accent and ictus coincide or clash to achieve different effects. However, students are not expected to have a knowledge of accent and ictus in VCE Latin.