Teaching and learning

Detailed example 1

Real-world arguments

• Recall recent situations in their own lives where they were required to use argument to prove their point; for example, to convince a parent or guardian to let them go to a party, or to qualify for a leadership position in their sport team or at school or similar.
• Write the argument as a short descriptive paragraph in simple everyday language.
• Swap examples with someone else in the class and that new reader is tasked with developing a standard form argument that accurately reflects the argument presented in the passage.
• Develop a counter example/counter point to challenge the argument presented.
• Return the work to the original writer. Ask them to either defend or attack the response written by the previous student.

Extension: Find a political speech with which to perform a similar activity.

Detailed example 2

The gambler’s fallacy

Have a coin tossed in class and, after a number of times, ask students to predict and record the next outcome.

Share the predictions and ask students to explain and give reasons for their predictions. They then record their predictions and explanations.

Watch the short video: ‘The Gambler’s Fallacy’.

Ask students to review their recorded predictions and explanations, and explain whether their recorded predictions are illustrative of the fallacy.

Extension:

Students consider and find examples of scientific theories and explanations that use patterns to predict events. Discuss whether these avoid the gambler’s fallacy. For example, the article ‘Committing "gambler’s fallacy" might be in the cards, new research shows’ can be used to explore how the gambler’s fallacy might be used in AI. Similarly, the article Humans are the world’s best pattern recognition machines but for how long' can be used to discuss, more broadly, the mind’s tendency to see patterns and how this can affect reasoning.

Finally, students may be interested in the links between the Gambler’s Fallacy and Red-Hot Hand Fallacy and how this might impact people’s decisions when investing on the stock market.

Detailed example 3

Representing an argument in standard form

Context:

Standard form is a method for presenting arguments. It involves reducing the argument to its premises and conclusion, rewriting these in succinct, declarative sentences, and arranging them sequentially so as to make clear the reasoning that underpins the argument. An argument is presented as a list of numbered steps. Usually premises and conclusions are labelled as such.

• Each step contains only one proposition: a single declarative sentence. (Usually it is either a premise or a conclusion, but sometimes a single proposition may be both the conclusion of one argument and a premise of another. An example of this is step 4 in the first example below.)
• Premises must come before the conclusions they are supposed to support and, generally, in the order in which they are presented, though this does not always have to be the case.
• Conclusions are signalled, usually by words like ‘Therefore ...’ or ‘So ...’
• Conclusions are marked in brackets to indicate which premises are supposed to support them.
• Arguments must be referenced and cited properly.

Activity One:

Students attempt to put the following paragraph into standard form.

‘The biological world is a highly complex and inter-dependent system. It is highly unlikely that such a system would have come about (and would continue to hang together) from the purely random motions of particles. It would be much less surprising if it were the result of conscious design from a super-intelligent creator. Therefore, the biological world was deliberately created and therefore, God exists.” (Andrew Bailey)

Here is a possible solution:

P(remise)1: ‘The biological world is a highly complex and inter-dependent system.’

P2: ‘It is highly unlikely that such a system would have come about (and would continue to hang together) from the purely random motions of particles.’

P3: ‘It would be much less surprising if it were the result of conscious design from a super-intelligent creator.’

C(onclusion)1: ‘Therefore, the biological world was deliberately created’ (by 1, 2, 3). C2: So, ‘God exists’ (by 3, 4; Andrew Bailey).

Students attempt to put the following paragraph into standard form.

One example is the Cyclical or Reincarnation argument from Plato’s Phaedo 70c–72e. In this argument Plato has Socrates construct an argument for reincarnation. Students set out the argument, showing the premises and conclusion, for example:

P1: All things come to be from their opposite states; for example, something that comes to be ‘larger’ must necessarily have been ‘smaller’ before (70e-71a).

P2: Between every pair of opposite states there are two opposite processes; for example, between the pair ‘smaller’ and ‘larger’ there are the processes ‘increase’ and ‘decrease’ (71b).

P3: If the two opposite processes did not balance each other out, everything would eventually be in the same state; for example, if increase did not balance out decrease, everything would keep becoming smaller and smaller (72b).

P4: Since ‘being alive’ and ‘being dead’ are opposite states, and ‘dying’ and ‘coming-to-life’ are the two opposite processes between these states, coming-to-life must balance out dying (71c-e).

C: Therefore, everything that dies must come back to life again (72a) (by 1, 2, 3 and 4).

Another example could be The Argument from Recollection (Phaedo 72e–78b). For more details on the standard form arguments in Plato see the entry for the ‘Phaedo’. /p>

Detailed example 1

Exploring a primary text: Plato’s Republic

Students complete a series of learning activities based on Plato and the Forms.

Activity One: Is everything as real as it seems?

1. Show students a broom, a picture of the same broom and a dictionary definition of a broom. Students may like to explore the artwork that inspires this part of the lesson at 'One and Three Chairs’.
2. Ask students to rank and order the ‘most real’ to the ‘least real’ broom.
3. Individually or in small groups, students construct reasons for their decisions.

Activity Two: One over the many

1. Students read an extract of Plato’s Republic (try: 569a – e as a start, but more can be set) and then consider an overview and summary of Plato’s argument in the Republic.
2. Students summarise Plato’s argument in their own words.

Activity Three: The Allegory of the Cave

1. Students view an extract from an award-winning animation of Plato’s allegory at ‘The Cave: An Adaption of Plato’s Allegory in Clay’.
2. After viewing the clip, students read ‘The Allegory of the Cave’ in Plato’s Republic (514a – 520a) and the summary and overview of the meaning of the allegory in the Republic.
3. They discuss the connections between the broom activity (Activity One), the ‘one over the many’ argument (Activity Two) and ‘The Allegory of the Cave’ (Activity Three). They refine their initial responses and reasoning for Activity One and present their ideas to the class.

Detailed example 2

Excursion and the philosophy of the mind

Students visit the Mind/Body Gallery at the Melbourne Museum. This excursion will allow students explore the nature of the mind and its relationship with the body (Theme 1). Create some objectives for the visit so that students have a focus for the essential knowledge to be gained. Prior to the excursion, discuss the skills required when deriving information from a range of resources (displays, exhibited objects, visual sources and interviews, which are all available in the Mind and Body Gallery) and how philosophical questions can be drawn from the museum exhibits. Also, prior to the excursion, ask students to develop responses, without prior research, to each of the following questions: What is your mind? What is its relationship to your body or brain? What is its relationship to your soul, if there is such thing as a soul? If your mind is distinct from the body, how does it interact with the body? As a class, students can make objectives for their visit; for example, by asking three separate questions.

After the excursion, discuss the issues raised, how the excursion contributed answers to the above questions, and what is still left unanswered. Ask students to identify further philosophical questions that the Mind/Body Gallery raised for them. Students can further evaluate their initial reflections after completing their study of the Theme.

Detailed example 3

Four corners activity: On the existence and nature of personal identity

Students use resources curated by the teacher to research the following theories on the nature of personal identity, their outlines and the objections raised against them:

1. The Same Body Theory
2. The Same Mind/Soul Theory
3. The Same Brain Theory
4. The Mental Connections Theory

Students are divided into four groups and assigned an argument from the list. They produce a standard form representation of the argument on large butcher’s paper. After they have completed this, all groups move to the next argument and write an objection to the argument. Once completed, all groups rotate again to the next argument and add or correct information, until each groups has visited all arguments. The original group presents their poster to the class and engages in a question and answer session with the class.

Detailed example 4

Exploring the views of a philosopher: Swinburne

Students interview a guest philosopher or listen to an audio program featuring an interview with a contemporary philosopher. Students reflect on their understanding of the interview and select one aspect to study in depth, undertaking further research. Their findings should be presented in the form of an essay or audio program.

One audio program that features regular interviews with philosophers is the ABC’S ‘The Philosopher’s Zone’.

One episode features an interview between then presenter Alan Saunders and Christian philosopher, Richard Swinburne, on the existence of God. Students can listen and read along with ‘the transcript of the interview’.

Questions that may guide students as they listen include:

1. What qualities does Swinburne believe God has?
2. What justification does Swinburne have to support his claim that the existence of God explains natural phenomena better than science? Do you agree or disagree? Why?
3. What is the problem of evil?
4. Swinburne answers the problem of evil by claiming that suffering gives one the opportunity to be the good person God wanted you to be. Are you convinced by Swinburne’s answer to the problem of evil? Why/why not? Give reasons and/or examples to support your view.
5. Do you accept Swinburne’s case for the existence of miracles? Why/why not?

Detailed example 5

Fatalism and the Story of Osmo

Students consider fatalism within the philosophy of free will. They undertake discussion and research in order to prepare for a class debate on whether free will exists.

Ask students: ‘Is everything we do determined by forces outside our control?’ Discuss and take responses, eliciting as much exploration as possible. Then ask: ‘Can we be free if there are causes for all our actions?’ Again, elicit discussion.

Students read the Story of Osmo from R. Taylor, Metaphysics (2nd Ed.), Prentice-Hall, Englewood Cliffs, 1974, pp. 58–71. This extract is often re-printed in other collected works on Free Will. Students can also watch an animation of the story at ‘The Story of Osmo’.

1. Did Osmo have free will? Could he have acted differently? How are free will and agency linked?
2. Was Osmo responsible for the plane crash at the end of the story? How are free will and responsibility linked?
3. Does the fact that the foreknowledge came from God influence the argument?
4. Is determinism the same as the foreknowledge of God?

Return to the initial questions in Activity One and ask students if they have changed their opinion and why.

Students review the answers they wrote for Activity One above and then discuss these as a class. Responses can form the basis for a class debate between those who argue in favour of free will and those who argue that there is no such thing as free will.

Detailed example 6

Time travel and paradoxes

Representing time travel involves explaining away or dealing sufficiently with the various paradoxes that arise in time travel. These include:

• The Grandfather Paradox. If time travel is possible, a person could conceivably travel back to a time before their birth and kill their grandfather. This would be impossible, however, because if the time traveller did kill their grandfather, they would never have come into being in the first place.
• Closed Causal Loops. If time travel is possible, it becomes possible for later events to bring about an earlier event, which is contrary to our conception of causality. If this occurs then we lose any meaning we have of the words ‘before’ or ‘after’.

Students research, present and explain the various paradoxes of time travel from journals, books and films. One example of a short story is Ray Bradbury’s ‘A Sound of Thunder’. It can be found easily online or in various collections of science-fiction stories, especially collections on time travel.

Students read ‘A Sound of Thunder’ and consider the logical inconsistencies that arise from the events that occur. For example:

• How was the dinosaur killed? Was it by a falling tree or by a bullet or both?
• Who was elected President?
• If killing a butterfly can have such immense consequences, why doesn’t everything the hunters do cause as many, if not more, problems in the future?
• Why didn’t the hunters encounter the advance party when they had travelled back in time?
• When the hunters return home they discover a different world to the one they left behind. What happened to their original world? Can we explain this change in a way that makes sense?
  

Students discuss whether it is possible to avoid any logical inconsistencies in a time travel story and then apply their understanding by writing their own time travel story.

Detailed example 7

Research in metaphysics: Challenges and debates

Select a newspaper or magazine article that explores a contemporary debate associated with the chosen metaphysical problem. Students formulate a series of questions that link the issues raised in the article to the metaphysical problem selected and investigate one of these within the context of a research project. Students, working individually or in small groups, can use the Question Protocol below to determine the question they will investigate. They present their research to the rest of the class as a PowerPoint presentation.

Students could be provided with prompts to stimulate their formulation of a series of questions. For example, on the topic of artificial intelligence:

• What is intelligence?
• How can we tell if something possesses intelligence?
• What is thinking?
• Does thinking require a mind?.
• Does a mind require a biological body?
• Could a machine have a mind?
• If a machine could have a mind, what implications may this have for the way in which we understand ourselves?

1. Why is this question important to you?
2. How is it relevant to the metaphysical topic in question?
3. What direct connections to contemporary debates can we identify?

If the individual or group feels there are satisfactory answers to all three questions, the question is considered appropriate for investigation. If a question does not meet these criteria, the group modifies the question or identifies another question for study and investigation.

Detailed example 8

Idealism

Students consider the history of idealism and Berkeley’s contribution to the philosophy.

Students create a concept map, either on paper or online, of the various types of idealism. Careful attention should be applied when exploring the similarities, differences or other links between each type. Students can refer to a summary of the types of idealism at ‘The Basics of Philosophy’ and supplement this with their own further research.

Students read a summary of Berkeley’s philosophy in the Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy (titled ‘George Berkeley’) and add information to the concept map of the history of idealism from Activity One.

1. According to Berkeley, to what extent does the mind make the world?
2. What does ‘esse est percipi’ mean for Berkeley?
3. Does the world consist of only ideas? What would this mean for metaphysics?
4. What critiques of Berkeley’s ideas can you think of? (Students may like to research historical objections to Berkeley’s idealism.)

Detailed example 1

Plato’s Tripartite Theory of Knowledge

Knowledge, for Plato, is founded on truth, which distinguishes belief from knowledge. Plato argues that our beliefs may or may not be true whereas our knowledge of something as true is supported by a justification for our belief.

Therefore, for something to count as knowledge we have to satisfy three conditions for knowledge:

1. Belief: What we know is something we must also believe.
2. Truth: What we know must be knowledge of the truth.
3. Justification: In order to know something we must not only have a belief in it but we must also have justification for believing it.

The name given to Plato’s theory is the ‘Tripartite Theory of Knowledge’. Consider this example: ‘An advocate claims that the number of asylum seekers will reduce next year.’ Does this claim count as knowledge? According to the tripartite theory, the advocate can only be said to have knowledge if:

1. they believe that asylum rates will go down
2. they can justify the belief (for example, by referring to recent asylum refugee figures suggesting a downward trend)
3. it is actually true that asylum refugee rates will go down.

1. Students describe the three conditions of Plato’s Tripartite Theory of Knowledge that must be satisfied for the following proposition to be true, and construct an example like the one given above.
2. Students discuss the question: Is Plato’s theory satisfactory as an account of the nature of knowledge?
3. Students further discuss: Can we ever know something in the future for certain?

Students explore Edmund Gettier’s seminal paper ‘Is Justified True Belief Knowledge?’ on the tripartite definition of knowledge. It can be found easily enough through an internet search.

Detailed example 2

On idealism and empiricism

This activity introduces the differences between the epistemologies of the two philosophers: John Locke (1632–1704) and Bishop George Berkeley (1685–1753).

1. Each student catalogues 50 things they can comfortably say they ‘know’.
2. Students individually conduct research and then summarise the essential ideas of Locke and Berkeley on epistemology.
3. Each student divides their catalogue of knowledge from Question 1 into two lists (placing items that best fit under either Locke or Berkeley) to represent empirical and idealist knowledge. Students share their lists.
4. Finally, students discuss the criteria by which they decided to list their examples of knowledge. There can also be consideration of the class’s results. For example, were there any common examples? Any examples of knowledge that appeared on both lists? Did anyone change their list and why?
5. Which list was longer? The Idealist’s or Empiricist’s list? Does this have any relevance to which theory may be more convincing?

Students prepare and present a speech that summarises which philosopher provides a more reasonable account on the nature of knowledge.

Detailed example 3

Epistemology and the authority of science

Exploring the implications of adopting a particular epistemological position is a focus for this Area of Study. In this example, students explore the authority of science. There are many scientific journals written for the lay public that deal with current research on a range of scientific pursuits. Scientific American and New Scientist are examples of such journals that can provide rich sources of study material for the classroom. In this activity, students research an article and discuss the epistemological claims made in the article. Students should be encouraged to look for key words related to epistemology, such as ‘science’, ‘theory’, ‘prove’, experimental findings’, ‘research’, ‘conclusions’, ‘truth’, ‘debate’ and so on.

Use the following sources to discuss the capacity for science to shed light on consciousness matters. The claims made in the news article ‘Philosophy David Chalmers on consciousness, the hard problem and the nature of reality’ can be compared with one of Chalmer’s famous philosophical rivals, Daniel Dennett, through the article ‘Daniel Dennett’s Science of the Soul’. Finally, ‘A Test for Consciousness’ examines whether science can shed any light on the nature of consciousness at all.

Students complete a set of written responses after reading an article from a scientific magazine, journal or article they have sourced themselves. They think initially about the epistemological status of the knowledge presented:

1. Can the methods of observation, experiment and/or measurement presented be trusted?
2. Does the problem of induction undermine the assertions made? Or is the problem of induction irrelevant? Why or why not?
3. Does the article provide an account of the world or reality that is objective?
4. Do scientists ever reach consensus? How should this affect the level of authority that we give to science?

Detailed example 4

William James and pragmatism

Provide students with a summary of William James and the squirrel. A written version can be found online.

Students discuss orally or write responses to the following questions:

• Are some disputes merely verbal? Is it just a matter of defining terms?
• Is morality a type of knowledge?
• Is there an objective way to answer whether the hunter went around the squirrel and the tree or just the tree?
• Would a subjective answer to the squirrel story provide a clear understanding of what occurred?
• Is James’s pragmatism a satisfactory account for the nature of truth?

Detailed example 5

Investigating certainty

1. Students are divided into small groups of four or five and given blank poster paper or butchers paper.
2. Each group writes down three examples of what they all agree they know for certain.
3. The groups complete and record the following tasks on their poster:
   1. Why are these good examples of knowledge that is certain?
   2. List examples of knowledge that were once regarded as certain knowledge but are now known to be false. Broadly state why they were found to be false, for example due to advances in science.
4. Revisit answers to Question 2 above and discuss whether the agreed-on examples are really certain. As they discuss, students attempt to develop a set of criteria for something to count as a certainty.
5. Students share and test their responses with the class while a definition for certainty is developed. The different groups could rotate around the room to read each others’ responses or they can present them to the class.

Students discuss the challenge of scepticism and consider the arguments for and against sceptical conclusions as to knowledge claims. This is an ideal opportunity to introduce the philosopher David Hume (1711–1776). A good overview of his philosophy, with a sub-section on scepticism, can be found on the Internet Encyclopaedia of Philosophy’s entry for 'David Hume'.

Detailed example 6

Investigating certainty

This concept game can be used to investigate the difference between belief and knowledge.

First, a set of cards should be prepared which show a range of claims such as: ‘Humans have walked on the moon’; ‘1 + 1 = 2’; ‘The school day finishes at 3:30 pm’; ‘Spiders have eight legs’; ‘A squared + B squared = C squared’; ‘Nothing can travel faster than the speed of light’ and so on. Students are given a set of cards and order them on a continuum from ‘belief’ at one end and ‘knowledge’ at the other.

Students then discuss their responses, developing a view on what must be satisfied for something to count as knowledge.

Teachers may like to prepare another deck of cards that has the words ‘a priori’ and ‘a posteriori’ written on them. A third deck could have the words ‘synthetic’ and ‘analytic’ written on them. Students can then classify each knowledge statement according to whether it could be a priori or a posteriori knowledge, and then classify the truth of each claim as either synthetic or analytic. Teachers would need to teach the definitions of each of these words as used by Kant.

Detailed example 1

Akrasia, pleasure, the good and the bad

Ancient Greek philosophers were particularly concerned with explaining a state of mind in which someone acts against their better judgement, especially due to a lack of self-discipline or control or a weakness of will.

Students write a dialogue in response to the contemporary moral debate and may also perform it as a role-play, demonstrating their understanding of the meaning of akrasia and the difficulties it may pose in trying to lead a moral life.

Activity:

Students read either Plato’s Protagoras, 351a–358d or Aristotle’s Nicomachean Ethics, Book VII 1–10, or both. Once students have fully comprehended these extracts, they consider the following question: ‘Is akrasia evidence that knowledge of good and bad can be overruled by pleasure?’

Provide students with one or more contemporary moral debate(s) that might involve consideration of akrasia. For example, that only people with involuntary medical conditions should have access to medical assistance.

Students write a dialogue in response to the contemporary moral debate and may also perform it as a role-play, demonstrating their understanding of the meaning of akrasia and the difficulties it may pose in trying to lead a moral life.

Detailed example 2

Good intentions, good actions or good character?

Within normative ethics, there are four broad positions often examined in relation to the agent and the action they perform, and morality. Some theories emphasise that morality is dependent on the type of action performed, some that it is the consequences experienced, some that the intentions of the agent are paramount and, finally, some argue that it is the character of the agent performing the action which is the most important moral dimension of a situation.

Ask the class to consider a proposition related to one of these broad positions such as: ‘What really matters is not what people do but rather what their intentions are.’

Students construct a response in a variety of forms such as an essay, a classroom presentation or an online video.

Their response could include the following:

• Their contention about whether they agree with this proposition or not
• The reasons they have to support their position
• Examples or scenarios to support their point of view
• Counter-examples which might be used to demonstrate a flaw in their argument and their response to these.

Ask students to then consider the following proposition: ‘What really matters is not what people’s intentions are but who they are.’ Or ‘What really matters is not who people are but what they do.’ Students can respond to each intention in turn, or the class can be divided to consider one statement which is then reported back to the class. A proposition from another broad school of thought can then be selected and the process repeated. As students become more familiar with the schools of thought, they can bring this learning into their responses.

Detailed example 3

Journal reflection on values

Students keep a personal journal or blog throughout the Area of Study for the purpose of reflecting on learning, skill development and, in particular, for reflecting critically on their own viewpoints and arguments relating to ethics and moral philosophy.

For example, to assist students in beginning their journal, ask them to consider and answer the following questions to help them identify what they value:

• Is there something that is important to you? What is it?
• Do you know why this is important to you? If so, list the reasons and/or feelings you have to support your values.
• Have you ever done anything that indicates that this is important to you?
• Is this something you would stand by even if others strongly disagreed?.
• Does this fit in with your vision of who you are? Why?
• Have you ever encountered a situation where your own values conflict with each other? How did you resolve it?

Detailed example 4

Survey on morality and moral issues

As a class, devise several questions about current moral issues or classic thought experiments (e.g. Trolley Problems). Convert these into a survey (include ethical protocols such as seeking permission, written statements declaring what will be done with the data should be followed) and distribute. The questions for the survey could be broad such as in the example below. (Alternatively, one specific question be elaborated on further.)

• Can you teach morality? If so, how?
• Is morality a type of knowledge?
• Do you think that the media desensitises people to violence and that this causes more casual violence?
• Do you think there are absolute moral wrongs and absolute rights?
• Do you think religion influences people’s moral values? To what extent?
• Which has the most influence on your morals? Parents, religious education, school education, environmental or life factors or other? (Please define your response.)

Once the results are in, collate the responses and discuss any apparent trends or widely held beliefs. Teachers should also encourage students to be critical of the method used to gain these responses, and think about whether those surveyed were willing to discuss these issues in a survey, or if it sets up false dichotomies. Students can also consider whether there are moral implications of such surveys – in what sense, if any, do surveys such as this, matter?

Students examine Plato’s arguments on the nature of morality and whether virtue can be taught in Meno Section 86–96.

Detailed example 1

Using a moral dilemma to explore the relationship between law and morality

One well-known moral dilemma that explores the relationship between the law and morality is the Heinz dilemma. This scenario involves Heinz and his wife, who is near death. Her only hope is a new drug sold by a pharmaceutical company for $200,000. Heinz can only raise $50,000 and insurance will not cover the rest. He offers the $50,000 to the company, offering to pay the rest in instalments but the offer is refused. Heinz considers stealing the drug. Would that be wrong?

An interactive pictorial version of this dilemma can be found at ‘Heinz’s Dilemma’.

Students reflect on the dilemma individually and then discuss their views in pairs. Each pair identifies up to two philosophical questions that this dilemma raises. These are taken to a wider discussion circle. Examples of questions that students may raise include:

Students perform, in order:

• Does the law on stealing offer a moral guide in resolving this dilemma?
• Would stealing the drug and then doing a prison sentence absolve Heinz from any wrongdoing?
• Is stealing the drug the right thing to do?
• Which ethical principles should Heinz consider in making up his mind?
• Should Heinz’s feelings alone drive his decision?

Students find and annotate examples of cases showing consistency and inconsistency between morality and the law, from sources such as the media, and select one example for a detailed response.

Detailed example 2

The United Nations’ Universal Declaration of Human Rights

(adapted from: Human Rights Here and Now)

Students read the ‘UN Declaration of Human Rights’ and note its scope and intention. They could also research the background to the drafting, including finding out more about the people on the committee, including the Australian William Hodgson.

Provide students with a copy of the following extract from Eleanor Roosevelt on the UN Declaration of Human Rights (UNDHR):

Where, after all, do universal rights begin? In small places, close to home – so close and so small that they cannot be seen on any maps of the world. Yet they are the world of the individual person; the neighbourhood he lives in; the school or college he attends; the factory, farm or office where he works. Such are the places where every man, woman, and child seeks equal justice, equal opportunity, equal dignity without discrimination. Unless these rights have meaning there, they have little meaning anywhere. Without concerned citizen action to uphold them close to home, we shall look in vain for progress in the larger world. (Eleanor Roosevelt, The Great Question, 1958)

Lead a discussion on this extract, drawing out the relationship between a list of rights and practical action, for example along the following lines:

• What does Roosevelt mean by ‘universal rights’?
• What is the relationship between an individual, the concept of rights and the wider world represented in this extract?
• Evaluate Roosevelt’s claim that the source of human rights are the ‘small places’.
• Is it true that universal values or standards of behaviour are impossible?
• Why did the U.N. chose the word ‘universal’ instead of the word ‘international’ when naming the UNDHR?
• What does the final sentence of Roosevelt’s quotation say about individual responsibility for human rights?
• What do you think Eleanor Roosevelt means by ‘concerned citizen action to uphold’ rights close to home?

Detailed example 3

Philosophy Trails

Students attend a Philosophy Trail at the National Gallery of Victoria (NGV). This excursion will allow students to explore the nature of art. Developed by the Victorian Association for Philosophy in Schools (VAPS), a Philosophy Trail is a program of philosophical discovery and reflection that invites students to tour and explore public spaces in Melbourne, and inquire into the values promoted within those public spaces. Students are led through a series of encounters at the venue that promote philosophical dialogue based on the Community of Inquiry methodology. Prior to the excursion, discuss the skills for participating in a Community of Inquiry. A model can be found At ‘COI Model’.

Before participating in the actual Philosophy Trail, develop responses, without prior research, to each of the following questions: What makes an artefact a work of art? What is the role of institutions such as the NGV in selecting and promoting art? Can beauty be objectively defined? Is beauty necessary in art?

After completing the Philosophy Trail, students discuss the experience: What was interesting or challenging? What ideas changed or remain the same after the experience? Ask students to identify further philosophical questions raised by the Philosophy Trail. Then consider the questions raised prior to the excursion and discuss how the Philosophy Trail contributed answers. Later, students can further evaluate their initial reflections after completing their study of the Theme.

Philosophy Trails are also available by enquiry at the following public venues: State Library of Victoria, Melbourne Museum (Bunjilkaka exhibition and the Mind and Body Gallery) Barringa, Peninsula Gallery, Melbourne Zoo, Werribee Zoo and Healsville Sanctuary.

Detailed example 4

Using a hypothetical situation to explore the value of art

In either small groups or individually, students imagine they are a curator of a gallery. They have a large collection of art works which will be part of a prestigious and well publicised art show. Patrons will have to purchase expensive tickets to view the works. The curator becomes aware that some drawings are suspected of being forgeries by the prolific 20th century art forger, Eric Hebborn. To a typical art gallery patron, they are indistinguishable from the originals. Discuss the following in relation to whether the presence of forgeries matters for the experience of the viewer:

• What do you do and why?
• Do you remove the pieces? If so, would the viewers nevertheless miss out on something?
• Do you place signs on each suspected forged artwork warning the public they may be forgeries? If so, how might this affect the appreciation of the art by the viewer? If not, is this unethical? Why?
• If you were aware of research that showed that people’s experience of originals and forgeries did not differ, would this make a difference to your actions?

Students provide reasoning to support their decisions and justify their actions.

Detailed example 5

Plato on censorship

Plato, in the Republic, offers a consistent argument for the importance of censorship of artwork. His arguments can be found in Books 3 and 10. Teachers may like to examine the primary text itself and then continue with the discussion below. A website that offers a summary of Plato’s main ideas as well as a standard form argument of Plato on censorship is ‘Plato on censoring artists’. For a more contemporary discussion on Plato and censorship, see ‘Plato’s Pop Culture Problem, and Ours’.

Students write a dialogue with Plato arguing for or against Plato’s position on censorship. Students could also write an essay, complete a speech, and so on. Students can draft their own questions in response to the Republic or use the following for discussion:

• Does censorship improve or diminish educational opportunities? Most schools censor racist and hate pages using filters on the internet – is this ‘good’ censorship? Should racist images used in art be censored?
• Is art educational?
• How should something like irony be responded to?
• Does censorship harm or protect societies? Is there a difference between ‘light’ or ‘heavy’ censorship?
• Do you think censorship violates freedom of speech? Should artists be treated differently or as ordinary citizens with regards to censorship of expression?
• Is it up to the government or other agencies to censor things? Or should censorship be self-regulated, for example parents choosing what to censor for their children or an individual choosing not to watch particularly violent movies. What criteria could an artist use to self-regulate?
• What do you think censors would pay more attention to when monitoring content: print, songs, movies, or content on the internet? Do you think musical lyrics need censoring? Nudity in artworks? Violence in movies?
• What things should never be censored? What would the world be like if there was no censorship at all?

Detailed example 6

Discussion on beauty, art and morality

Using a range of illustrative examples, discuss whether the beautiful has any moral significance. Then, introduce students to Pablo Picasso’s Guernica and consider how the painting is regarded as art and arguments for the view that it does not need to be defined and evaluated by reference to beauty. Most people consider it to be great art; so, what are the characteristics that make it great art or do its distortions rely on a reference to beauty, after all? For extension, students may like to consider whether the stimulus for the painting (the bombing of a village in the Spanish Civil War) is appropriate subject matter for a work of art. Further, the artwork is one of the most important anti-war paintings in recent history. Students consider whether an artwork can have a moral message, whether it should have a moral message and, more generally, the role of art in moral education. They can find more information on the painting on the internet (‘Guernica’).

Detailed example 1

Reflective equilibrium: adjusting and modifying principles

In 1971, John Rawls coined the term 'reflective equilibrium' to explain and elucidate 'a state of balance or coherence among a set of beliefs arrived at by a process of deliberative mutual adjustment among general principles and particular judgments'.

As an example of reflective equilibrium, students consider how Western colonialists identified and resolved the logical inconsistencies in their prevailing moral codes between owning slaves, espousing democracy and universal human rights. Slavery and other 'isms' (e.g. sexism, racism and ageism) are useful for highlighting hypocritical attitudes from already established and contrasting moral principles. The method of reflective equilibrium requires us to seek coherence between our set of beliefs by making adjustments and modifications to our justifications from a principled position that we want to hold on to.

Use the method of 'reflective equilibrium' to explore the aligning of experience and facts with a sense of justice. Students find an historical case where they illustrate and discuss how the method of equilibrium can be used to reconcile the nature of the case with a sense of justice.

An alternative approach is to ask the class to imagine they were a parliament and that they had a conscience vote on a current issue; for example, organ donation, treatment of refugees or the definition of marriage. How could the method of equilibrium be used to assist in reaching a position? Students test this through role-playing a debate on a selected issue and reflecting on the process they used to come to a final position.

Detailed example 2

Continuum or line debate

Students respond to statements about philosophical problems by placing themselves in a position on a physical ‘line’ in the classroom marked at either end with the words ‘strongly agree’ and ‘strongly disagree’. These can be in relation to any of the areas studied in Units 1 and 2, such as epistemology and questions of value. For the latter, statements might include, for example: ‘All children should go to school’; ‘Families have no role in moral decisions’; ‘Animals have no rights like human beings’ and so on.

Students are asked to discuss and justify their position on the continuum. Their arguments and justifications, as well as any ambiguities that arise from these arguments, can be recorded and presented in a response to the exercise. In a bigger class, a teacher might divide the class into half. The first half can respond to the first set of questions while the second half records the responses and reasons. The groups should swap to ensure full engagement in the activity.

Students are asked to discuss and justify their position on the continuum. Their arguments and justifications, as well as any ambiguities that arise from these arguments, can be recorded and presented in a response to the exercise. In a bigger class, a teacher might divide the class into half. The first half can respond to the first set of questions while the second half records the responses and reasons. The groups should swap to ensure full engagement in the activity.

Extension:

Students construct argument maps or standard form representations of their reasoning from the activity.

Detailed example 3

The Golden Rule

Students may be aware of the ‘golden rule’: ‘Treat others as you would like to be treated’ or variations of it.

Students should first research the meaning of this rule (see, for example, Karen Armstrong’s TED talk “Let’s Revive the Golden Rule”) and its variations across various religions and philosophies. Students should pay particular attention to the locations and cultures that following this rule and discuss the degree to which it is universal.

Students can then write a written reflection on the moral meaning and significance of the rule, and whether such a consensus may be indicative of an objective moral precept.

As a class, think of arguments for the ‘golden rule’ as the basis for all moral action at the school level, national level or international level. Then, think of counterarguments for the golden rule as a basis for moral action. Further research into the critiques may be required.

Detailed example 4

The role of reasoning in moral and political philosophy

Visit the website 'Michael Sandel on Justice: A Journey in Moral Reasoning'. It contains lecture extracts on moral and political philosophers from 'A Journey in Moral Reasoning' by Michael J Sandel. While watching the clip, students reflect on the role of reasoning in building a strong case, including philosophical inquiry techniques such as analogy (in the clip, the analogy between playing a flute and political office) in grappling with contemporary moral and judicial issues. This could include a comparison between the persuasive power of logic and the persuasive power of anecdotes. The clip is divided into different sections and students could work in small groups on one section and then discuss their findings with another group. Students watch their designated section twice, once for the moral and political philosophy and once for the reasoning involved.

Detailed example 1

Pleasure and self-discipline

In preparation for the lesson, ensure students have access to a copy of the Aesop fable The Flies and the Honey. This could be in paper format or a digital copy. Alternatively, a podcast or video version would be appropriate.

Begin the lesson by asking students to consider what role pleasure plays in their lives. A short, paired discussion of what they find pleasurable and what they find painful would be ideal to get students engaged with the content. Follow this by asking them how difficult they find it to focus on things perceived as good for them (for example, doing homework) when there are easier more pleasurable options available (perhaps bingeing a favourite show and eating junk food). Then, ask students to read or listen to the fable and note the moral presented: ‘Be not greedy for a little passing pleasure. It may destroy you’.

Use this as impetus for a discussion of the dangers of pleasures and guide students towards consideration of different kinds of pleasures, and the potential value or danger of each.

Finally, if set texts have already been examined, students use this as stimulus for a reflection on the effectiveness of arguments presented in those texts as to the nature and value of pleasure and self-discipline. Alternatively, if this activity is used at the start of a unit, follow up with a short reading from a set text and discuss the view of the philosopher, taking into consideration previous discussions.

Extension: In preparation for assessment, set a short writing task asking students to critically compare Aesop’s ideas with those in set texts or to evaluate set texts in relation to the Aesop fable.

Detailed example 2

What common ideas of happiness are there?

In preparation for this lesson, identify online resources that contain quotes and maxims about happiness (for example, 40 Best Quotes About Happiness to Help you Feel Great). Another option is to create a curated list of examples from multiple sites and present these to students in order to help generate the discussion intended.

Ask students to, in small groups or individually, label each quote/maxim in so far as it conforms to a particular idea about happiness. For example, ’Some cause happiness wherever they go; others whenever they go’ (Oscar Wilde).

A student might label this quote as ‘interpersonal relations’ or ‘friendships’ or ‘socially acceptable behaviour’ or even ‘the joy of isolation’. They might also note whether the quote is in favour of or against the label they identified for it.

Alternatively, you could provide students with a set list of options and ask them to match the quotes to the set terms.

Having labelled the quotes, students then discuss the importance of those qualities in happiness and why they might be important. Ranking or placing the quotes on a spectrum from least to most important, or most personal to most social, could also help spark discussion about the nature of happiness.

For a visual alternative, students could make a poster of qualities they consider linked to happiness and then connect these to quotes and ideas found in set texts, as the unit progresses.

They could also include evaluative notes challenging and supporting these ideas.

Detailed example 3

Analysing arguments in set texts

The process through which students should engage in a set text is not static and there are many ways to analyse a text neatly for revision and practice purposes. One such way is to use standard form.

For each argument encountered in a set text, students can identify the key conclusion and the premises that lead to this conclusion. By laying this out neatly on the page as below, students can visualise the elements of the argument and can easily find potential criticisms and supports:

Premise 1

Premise 2

Conclusion

Students read short extracts from a text and then, in small groups (or perhaps with guidance from the teacher) they attempt to identify each premise, as well as the conclusion. They could also identify any key examples of thought experiments used to support the argument. Then, around the standard form argument and using a different colour pen, students ask questions of the various elements of the argument as the basis for developing an evaluation such as:

Extension: Once students feel comfortable with the ordering of the argument and the kinds of evaluative remarks that can be made, they can consolidate these notes by building posters, making cue cards, developing mind maps, or writing practice question responses that require outlining, evaluating or comparing.

Detailed example 4

Consolidating knowledge of set texts

At the end of a topic, it is prudent for students to consolidate their knowledge and engage in a process of comparison to think about how the texts relate to each other and the set questions in the outcome. There are many ways to do this but one simple method is via mind maps or tables.

Provide students with a table to fill in that contains key language and questions from the outcome, each in its own column. For example: morality, happiness, human nature, values, hedonism, egoism, freedom, pleasure, pain, teleology, virtue, altruism, wisdom, self-restraint, duty, praise, blame, meaningfulness, creativity, authenticity. In the rows of the table, include each set text:

Ask students to summarise the key position of each text on the set terms (they may not all have a view on each term but in some cases it may be possible to infer or speculate and this is best done in a different colour). Also note where they can be found within the set texts (line or page number).

Within the same document, create a second table that allows students to summarise their comparative findings and provide evaluative remarks. This allows them to extend their thinking.

This could all be done individually, in small groups, or as a class with a presentation component. Posters could be posted on digital shared spaces or around the classroom in poster form.

Extension: Students use these notes as they practise writing responses to questions or as a guide in essay or journal entry writing.

Detailed example 5

Connecting to contemporary life

Relevance is often a key concern of students in philosophy especially when reading historical texts so some time spent in a unit focusing on the connections between abstract classical ideas and the reality of life today can be very beneficial. Ask students to research contemporary issues as discussed in news media websites and make a list of current concerns facing our world. Each issue should relate to a core concept from this outcome: happiness, pleasure, self-discipline, authenticity, freedom, friendship, love. Students should then pose a question or write a short summary that makes clear how the contemporary issue relates to the concept.

For each issue, ask students to reflect on how the philosophers encountered in the set texts might respond or how their particular ideas might help shed light on solutions to the issue. Students could then evaluate the effectiveness of the philosopher’s potential response in so far as it might be helpful in resolving the problem.

Based on this reflection, students could then further reflect on how useful the ideas of the text are in so far as they can be applied helpfully today.

Detailed example 1

Weighing up self and other

Thought experiments can be an excellent way to allow students to consider ideas in their simplest forms without the context that comes with real-world scenarios. For this activity, ask students to develop their own versions of a simple scenario that involves choosing between a self-interested act and an other-interested act. You might provide a scenario of your own as an example such as:

• When stepping onto a bus you notice there is a single free seat left. Behind you a second person also steps onto the bus. Do you keep the seat for yourself and your bag or do you stay standing and allow the other person to sit?

Then, you can modify the scenario in different ways to allow students to discuss how these contexts might alter the outcome:

• You have a heavy bag
• The other person uses a walking frame or is older
• You are in a country where it is considered impolite to not offer a seat to someone else
• You have an invisible but undiagnosed medical condition that requires sitting
• Other people are watching you intently and you worry about their judgement
• You have been thinking about sitting down all day after a long period of walking
  
• You are below the poverty line and the other person is clearly wealthy
• And so on.

Ask students to then imagine their own scenarios and modifications that might alter the outcome. They share these with their peers and determine what they would do in each instance (original and with modifications). They can also consider the question of how a set text’s author might respond to the scenario and why, as a way of engaging with the set text.

Finally, students reflect on the lessons these scenarios teach about the good life and our obligations to others and ourselves in extended journal or other reflective writing. They could also survey other people for further results.

Detailed example 2

Rights and a good life

Connecting real-world contexts to philosophical ideas can be an excellent approach for helping students to see relevance in abstract ideas. Examining a bill of rights or other similar charter allows for robust discussion and connection between the set texts and the real world.

Students examine a bill of rights such as the Victorian Government Charter of Human Rights. Ask students to break into small groups and select a right for each group to examine closely. For example, ‘the right to recognition and equality before the law’ which states:

Ask students to record the wording of the specific right and to then summarise what each specific element allows for in simple language:

Section 8 of the charter allows for:
• Personhood recognition
  
• Rights without discrimination
• Equal treatment from the law
• Protection from discrimination.

Then ask students, in their group, to examine each allowance for its relevance to living a good life both in their opinion and also taking into account any concepts and texts examined in the course.

Students record this as well and then each group presents their findings to the class. As a class, examine each right and attempt to rank them in order of importance to determine which elements seem most necessary for a good life. Evaluations could also be drawn based on textual readings and class discussion as to rights that may not be necessary or could even be considered detrimental from some perspectives.

Students then reflect on the role rights play in a good life, considering the discussions held and ideas in the set texts.

Detailed example 3

Australia and the good life

Students make a list of three things they like best about living in Australia. They share their choices and explain their decisions with appropriate reasons. Next, students make a list of three things they like least about living in Australia. They share their choices and explain their decisions with reasons.

Students then consider the question: Who is responsible for enhancing the best things about living in Australia and fixing the least liked things? While the answer might quickly be ‘the government’, try to probe a little deeper about the various levels of government, organisations (government and NGOs, businesses, etc.) and individuals who contribute to the development (or diminution) of Australia. Discuss the roles of each and their contributions and take notes as a record of the conversation.

Students consider the following questions in response to the work completed in Activity 1:

• How does a government ensure the good life for its citizens?
• Is the government solely responsible for the good life of its citizens?
• Does the good life rely on the work of others?
• To what extent is a government responsible for the good life of people outside its borders? Or non-citizens? Useful websites include: The Australian Government Department of Social Services and the Australian Government Department of Foreign Affairs and Trade.
  

Students justify their answers for each response in a written reflection.

Detailed example 4

Summarising key arguments

Students tend to find Philosophy more manageable when working in ways that allow for collaboration and sharing. There are many concepts in set texts and within the study design that students need knowledge of, so it is recommended that opportunities to combine knowledge be found.

1. Write out the premises that the author uses to reach the stated conclusion.
2. Identify any examples that the author uses to support their thinking. Alternatively, write an example that has been discussed in class that serves this purpose.
3. Identify one to two arguments/pieces of evidence that support the author’s claims.
4. Identify one to two arguments/pieces of evidence that challenge the author’s claims.
5. Write a response outlining the argument as though you were writing for a test (formal philosophical language, full sentences).
6. Write a response evaluating the argument as though you were writing for a test (formal philosophical language, full sentences).

These posters can then be placed around the classroom for students to use when studying. Also, students can add their own ideas (not found during the task) to class notes or their own notes for use in assessment. As a further extension, students could make connections with string and labels or other similar markings showing how one argument leads to the next and how some arguments presume knowledge found in others and are hence susceptible to criticism if those foundational arguments are flawed.

This task can also be completed digitally as a slide presentation or poster.

Detailed example 5

Comparing ideas and arguments

Seeing connections between texts can be a complex skill for students to master. Visual representations help greatly here for many students struggling with density of language.

Students create Venn diagrams for key concepts related to the course or found in set texts. For example: the common good, morality, human nature, society, values, freedom, altruism, justice, injustice, equality, duty, rights, ethics, reciprocity, care, fairness, obligation, dependence.

For each diagram, there should be a circle for every thinker studied in that outcome. Then students fill in the circles, noting where the thinkers agree on an idea (similarity) or where they are unique (difference).

For each diagram, there should be a circle for every thinker studied in that outcome. Then students fill in the circles, noting where the thinkers agree on an idea (similarity) or where they are unique (difference).

These can be placed around the classroom or completed digitally to allow for study at home.

Students can then use these observations to write short passages summarising the key similarities and differences between thinkers. Further, as critical comparison can be an important skill, students can consider which philosophers have the stronger ideas in the set concepts form the course. This can be articulated in assessment-style questioning or reflective journal. Class discussion could also be used to drive this idea development.

Detailed example 1

Experience and credibility

Put the class into groups and ask each group to begin by discussing and building a shared definition of ‘credibility’. As part of their definition they should include examples of people they think are credible. Also provide each group with a specific example to consider to allow for a more targeted discussion and reflection later.

Then, for each example identified, the group should discuss what in particular makes that person credible. At this stage students should aim for depth, explanation and critical thinking.

Scenario – Medical researcher speaking on television regarding advancements in weight loss technology.

Source of credibility:

• Surface level – They have a degree in a related field.
• Deeper level – We are inclined to trust educated people in our society. When we as individuals lack knowledge on something we feel less confident about it and so are inclined to defer to people who have knowledge in that area and trust it. This is a psychological justification for finding others credible that reveals a potential bias leading to flawed thinking. This is particularly prominent in areas of health and wellness as fear of one’s own mortality leads to a desire to trust someone you believe may be able to help you survive. Clearly this is something that could be abused.

Finally, ask students to reflect on what issues with credibility their discussion has revealed. A group discussion of the sources of credibility that seem to exist as well as the flaws with them would be a useful concluding activity, followed by a self-reflection on each student’s own susceptibility to accepting expertise and experience on face value without critical consideration.

Examples that could spark interesting discussion include: teacher, parent, politician, television personality, influencer, historian, critic, scientist, lawyer.

Detailed example 2

Education and belief

Examining immediate environments is an easy and quick way to get students thinking about the complexity of belief formation. Students can use this activity to investigate and critique the function of their own education.

1. Begin by asking students to consider what a teacher is and what purpose they serve. Ask them to consider both the purpose to the student and the purpose to society.
2. Ask them to list traits they associate with ‘good teaching’ and traits they associate with ‘poor teaching’. Of course, be careful to keep such discussions impersonal – this activity is not designed to encourage students to openly name and criticise their teachers.
3. Then ask students to think about what kinds of beliefs they have developed because of their teachers’ teaching. For example:
   • It is important to always show your working out.
   • We should always aim to use full sentences when we write.
   • It is important to seek feedback.
   • It is important to ask questions.
   • And so on.
4. Students then reflect on whether these beliefs are important or useful. A thought experiment around what society would look like if we did not encourage a system that trained people in these beliefs could follow.
5. Ask students to reflect on the ways teachers justify their teachings. What reasons do we have to trust what they say and do? Are there situations where a student should seek to challenge their teacher’s teachings or try to disprove it? Or is it best to always trust their teaching?
6. Finally, discuss as a group whether it is imperative for a society to educate its citizens and whether that education should be open and encourage self-development of systems of belief and justification or whether it should be rigid and regimented around specific tried and tested ways of thinking learning and believing. A class debate or reflective journal entry would be appropriate here, reflecting on how belief formation works in education and its value.

Detailed example 3

Trust and justification

Another simple and engaging way to get students quickly considering an idea is to relate to personal experience. Beginning with a reflection on when trust proved misplaced can help to narrow down when trust should be held. However, whenever dealing with students’ personal experiences it is important to be careful and make sure students know they do not need to share their examples if they do not wish to. Alternatively, make it clear that they will be sharing and so should be careful about the examples they choose and how they censor them to protect identities.

If this is too problematic, students could work with simple scenarios created by the teacher instead.

1. Ask students to reflect on a past experience where they trusted someone or something and this trust proved misplaced due to a negative outcome. This would be best run as a written exercise. For example: ‘I heard on the news it was going to be a warm and sunny day today and it has turned very cold. However, trusting the news as I have been taught to think it is a reliable source of information, I wore summer uniform and don’t have my jumper. I am now very cold and regretful.’
2. Then ask students to identify or label what they trusted specifically and for what reason they trusted it.
3. After this, students evaluate, in groups or alone, whether the rationale for trust was reasonable or unreasonable.
4. Then ask students to make a shared class list of rationales for trust and discuss as a group when these rationales are reasonable and when not. They should also note potential risks with each rationale. For example, a risk of trusting the news is that you may become misinformed or biased if the news outlet has a particular bias or agenda in its coverage of an event.
5. The activity can end with a reflection on the question: ‘When should we trust assertions made by others?’

Detailed example 4

Role play: Philosopher

This task can be challenging to complete during a unit, but it is useful at the end as an extension/revision exercise. Prior to this task it is recommended to engage in some setup. This activity is like an English class activity where students play the role of characters in a work of fiction and interrogate a student/teacher who plays the role of the author and must justify their ideas. Often it is best to select students carefully for this task and differentiate roles based on perceived student ability.

1. Ask students to self-select a philosopher from the outcome they would like to be an ‘expert’ on. Depending on the size of the class and the number of philosophers this could be a group exercise.
2. Students should then ensure they prepare for this lesson by making notes on the key ideas and examples from that philosopher as well as common evaluations and counter arguments to these.
3. Alternatively, the teacher could insert themselves into this activity by volunteering to be the philosopher who will be critiqued by the class. In that case, students should instead write questions to quiz the teacher on based on their reading and understanding of the text.

1. Ask the student or group of students representing a particular philosopher to sit at the front of the room – a table formation like a press conference or town hall meeting would work well for this.
2. Ask other students to quiz the student/group on their ideas:
   1. ‘I noted you said – what do you mean by this?
   2. How do you respond to the criticism that …?
   3. You conclude ‘x’. How can you justify this conclusion considering ‘y’?
   4. Do you think your thought ‘x’ has real world practical value? How so?
   5. And so on.
3. One/two students or the teacher can play the role of scribe writing down questions and answers to be reviewed by the class for accuracy and usefulness. This could also be a recorded lesson that students can return to later.
4. Finally, ask students to individually reflect on their own notes to see if they learned any new ideas in this lesson or changed their opinions on the philosopher in light of the discussion.

1. An alternative approach to this task is to have the groups play off against each other. In the initial setup, group students together so they can research and prepare to play as one philosopher.
2. Then place one member from each group together to form a new group where each philosopher is represented in each group.
3. Provide each group with a list of questions (perhaps in advance for preparation during the research phase) relevant to the course and ask each member to answer as their philosopher. Time for interrogation from the other members of the group playing their philosophers should follow. Questions could include:
   1. What role should experience, testimony and expertise play in the formation of and justification for belief?
   2. What responsibilities, if any, do we have to ourselves and others in regards to belief, belief formation and justification?
   3. Under what circumstances should we trust assertions made by others?
   4. What should we do in light of others holding beliefs that disagree with ours?
   5. How should we define terms like: knowledge, belief, perspective, experience, testimony, expertise, truth, trust, consensus, authority, fact, reason, intuition, perception, influence, falsity, peer disagreement, epistemic justice, epistemic injustice, epistemic community?

Detailed example 5

Building evaluations

Collaboration and teamwork can be extremely useful when learning how to evaluate philosophers’ views.

In preparation for this task, write arguments from set texts in standard form in a shared digital document or on pieces of paper. These should include examples used in the text as well for reference.

Break the class into even-sized groups and give each group one argument to work on. In their group they should aim to develop as many evaluations as they can. Provide students with different approaches for evaluating such as:

• Pointing out fallacies
• Identifying flawed premises
• Indicating questionable conclusions
• Finding examples that don’t fit the argument
• Considering real world implications
• Practicality
• Developing better arguments that explain the situation in a less questionable way
• And so on.

Detailed example 1

Case study selection

In selecting case studies for Unit 4 Area of Study 2 it is important to be mindful of the specific needs of your class and the time available in your course. Below are elaborations on some different strategies you could employ in finding case studies and some general advice on how to use them.

One technique is to ask students to develop a folio of examples through their own research. This would require the most time and has the most variance in results. Provide students with the contexts and ask them to brainstorm issues in the world that they have heard of that relate to that context, including epistemological issues found in set texts that might be related. A class vote or discussion as to the most engaging or compelling case studies could be used to narrow the discussion down to the two key case studies spread over two contexts that is required. Then, further research on the part of the class finding specific examples of these case studies – newspaper articles, videos, social media posts, opinion blogs etc. – could be undertaken and then used to complete the in class activities.

An alternative to option 1 is to preselect case studies for each context that you as a teacher feel comfortable looking into and then allow students to select from a finite list of options that they feel would be most interesting or relevant to investigate. Then, students could research specific examples as noted in option 1.

One final option is to develop a carefully curated collection of resources for students to engage with on pre-selected case studies which ensures they are in line closely with the course and include activities and ideas relevant to the set texts.

Regardless of the approach to case study selection you undertake with your class, it is important that you are working closely with the study design in how they are selected and used. For any case study selected, it must relate to the set texts’ ideas in some way and must have compelling epistemological concerns (either stated or implied) within it. Without this strong course connection, students will struggle to use the case study to engage with the course.

For example, recent examples of ‘cancelling’ within the acting/entertainment community (for example, Kevin Spacey, Louis CK, Harvey Weinstein) do not necessarily contain epistemological merit and so the broad case study of ‘cancel culture in Hollywood’ may not be useful despite being a common example of cancelling that students are likely aware of.

However, noted examples of criticism and attempts to silence Andrew Tate do have epistemological merit as his work has involved a belief system, the employment of personal credibility to support it, and attempts to persuade others to share his point of view. In response some online insular communities have developed and so this case study could be relevant in some ways to all three of the set contexts from the course.

Hence careful consideration is needed in ensuring case studies are relevant to contexts in Area of Study 2 and questions from area of study 1.

Detailed example 2

Shared understanding of contexts

One essential aspect of Area of Study 2 is ensuring students can develop clear and shared understandings of the contexts. Ask students to brainstorm what they think might be meant by each term in each context:

• Silencing, exclusion and cancelling
• Misinformation, disinformation and echo chambers
• Truth, trust, credibility and expertise

Ask them to develop simple novel examples of what these terms might look like in practice. For example ‘exclusion’ might look like ‘not letting a person you don’t like sit with you’.

Then ask students to take their novel examples and consider what epistemological concerns these may generate, taking into account the set questions from Area of Study 1:

• What role should experience, testimony and expertise play in the formation of and justification for belief?
• What responsibilities, if any, do we have to ourselves and others in regards to belief, belief formation and justification?
• Under what circumstances should we trust assertions made by others?
• What should we do in light of others holding beliefs that disagree with ours?

Students may discover that their novel examples do not relate to these questions well; the example of excluding someone from sitting with you does not clearly relate. This is important as it allows students to see how not all case studies will be equally relevant to the course.

Then, ask students to modify or create new examples that relate to the set context term and relate to one or more of the set questions. They can present these to the class and these presentations can be used by the class to help narrow down what can be meant by each context term as it relates to the course.

Detailed example 3

Reflective writing on case studies

Maintaining journals as an exercise in extended writing geared towards improving students’ ability to write longer and more complex pieces is very useful at this point in a course.

Ask students, when first encountering a case study, to reflect on how they think this case study relates to the context selected and the ideas and texts examined in Area of Study 1. This can be completed as a series of smaller writing pieces or as one extended piece.

Over the course of the outcome, ask students to return to and update their journalling, considering the new ideas and connections they gain through class discussion and encounters with resources provided by the teacher.

Ask students to share their reflections with each other to help build shared understandings and reveal complexity in the ways the key questions, set texts, and relevant case studied interact.

Detailed example 4

Annotation of articles

This activity requires students to study a resource (article, video with transcript, short extract, etc.) related to a case study.

Provide students, either individually or in small groups, with the resource and ask them to engage in an annotation exercise. It is recommended that students use multiple colours for different annotations.

Ask students to first read the article aloud.

Then ask students to highlight in one colour any passages that relate to an idea from a set text. They note next to the highlighted section what argument, example, or conclusion from a set text is relevant. They repeat this process for all set texts deemed relevant by the teacher, possibly with a different colour per text for ease of visibility.

As part of each annotation, students could also pose questions that are implied by the resource – perhaps a criticism that can be developed of a set text’s view by taking an example from the resource into account. Students can use these notes as part of extended writing pieces relating the set text’s ideas to the case study and the key questions from Area of Study 1.

As a reflective exercise, ask students to respond to questions such as:

• How does the resource relate to ‘set text’?
• What arguments in the ‘set text’ are relevant to this resource?
• What questions can be asked of the ‘set text’ in light of this resource?
• What questions could the author of the ‘set text’ ask of this resource and the case study it represents? What answers might the resource provide and what would the author of the ‘set text’ say about this? Justify your thinking.
• Outline an argument presented in the ‘set text’ using an example from this resource in your answer.
• Compare how ‘set text one’ and ‘set text two’ would respond to the ideas implied and presented in this resource.
• Use an example from this resource in an evaluation of the ‘set text’.
• What in this resource relates to the questions from Area of Study 1? Make notes for each question with elaboration:
• What role should experience, testimony and expertise play in the formation of and justification for belief?
• What responsibilities, if any, do we have to ourselves and others in regards to belief, belief formation and justification?
• Under what circumstances should we trust assertions made by others?
• What should we do in light of others holding beliefs that disagree with ours?

Detailed example 5

Displays for case studies

One challenge of Area of Study 2 is that the case studies you employ will need to be able to relate to a lot of different things, including the set texts, the Key Knowledge and Skills in Area of Study 2, as well as the general questions from Area of Study 1. Hence, students will need a way to compartmentalise this information or visualise this information through some kind of graphic organiser. Below are two examples of how this is possible.

Ask students to create a slideshow presentation using a digital programme that includes the following:

• A slide summarising the case study
• A slide with links to resources related to the case study,
• A slide for each question from Area of Study 1 that is necessary for this outcome
• A slide with explanation of how this case study relates to the selected context
• A slide with explanation of how this case study relates to the set texts.

This could also be done as a poster that is displayed in the classroom. However, as it contains a lot of information, this could be difficult to achieve.

Another approach is to ask students to create their own notes. It is recommended that this be done via a table where students are connecting the set texts to the case study and the questions from the course, as shown below. Students could fill in this table in groups or individually and then use these notes for assessment-style questions.