A range of suggested learning activities have been provided for each area of study in Units 1–4. It should be noted that the activities included cover a range of the key knowledge and key science skills for each area of study, but not all of them. Some activities could be completed within one class and others could be completed over an extended period. They include learning activities that involve group work, class discussion, practical application of scientific skills, and synthesis of knowledge and skills in written responses. Some of the learning activities have been tagged to provide examples of how the eight scientific investigation methodologies relevant to VCE Physics can be applied in each unit. Many of the learning activities could be adapted for use in other areas of study or units, or developed into assessment tasks. All are intended to be examples that teachers may use and/or adapt to suit the needs of their own students.
Included external links are for teacher reference purposes. They do not constitute VCAA endorsement of the views or materials contained on these sites and teachers need to ensure that any information or activities are appropriately adapted to meet the requirements of the
VCE Physics Study Design Units 1 and 2: 2023–2027; Units 3 and 4: 2024–2027.
Unit 1: How is energy useful to society?
Outcome 1
On completion of this unit the student should be able to model, investigate and evaluate the wave-like nature of light, thermal energy and the emission and absorption of light by matter.
Examples of learning activities
Key knowledge: Electromagnetic radiation
Key knowledge: Thermal energy
- Classification and identification: Explain the difference between temperature and heat.
- Modelling: Construct a conductivity star made of four different metals to demonstrate the different thermal conductivities of the metals.
- Experiment: Use a temperature probe to monitor the phase change of wax cooling or crushed ice warming.
- Compare the resolution of different measuring instruments.
- Experiment: Investigate the rate at which an ice cube melts when placed on different types of blocks; for example, foam, rubber, wood, metal.
- Modelling: Demonstrate that water is a poor conductor of electricity by three-quarters filling a test tube with water, then boiling water at the top of a test tube, showing that ice held at the bottom of the test tube does not melt.
- Case study: Discuss how different temperature scales were developed; for example, Celsius, Fahrenheit and Kelvin.
- Experiment: Investigate the precision of different temperature measuring devices; for example, analogue and digital thermometers.
- Product, process, or system development: Construct and explain the operation of a Galilean thermometer.
- Case study: Discuss Newton’s Law of Cooling (published anonymously in 1701 as ‘Scala Graduum Caloris. Calorum Descriptiones & Figna’ available in
Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society, volume 22, issue 270) and discuss his conclusions from the perspective that the distinction between ‘heat’ and ‘temperature’ was not understood at the time. Test the statement that was made at the time that the law applies only in a breeze.
- Experiment: Work in groups to investigate the conduction of heat along a given metal bar. Attach five pins along the length of each bar using small pieces of wax; heat one end of the bar and record the time it takes for each pin to drop away from the bar. Graph distance vs time; compare the graphs for different metals and discuss conclusions.
- Experiment: Make a prediction and investigate the final temperature when two liquids at different initial temperatures are mixed.
- Experiment: Investigate whether the rate of cooling of different metals is related to another variable; for example, density, thermal conductivity or specific heat capacity.
- Modelling: Develop a model to investigate whether putting a coat on a snowman makes it melt faster.
- Experiment: Design experiments to provide a physics-justified response to the following questions:
- Does cold water freeze faster than hot water?
- How is the temperature of a fluid related to its viscosity?
- How does temperature affect the surface tension of a liquid?
- Does different hair colour affect its capacity to keep the head warm?
- Is it important to put a lid on the pot when you want to boil water for tea to save energy and time?
- To cool a pot effectively, should ice be placed above it or under it?
- Experiment: Determine the specific heat capacity of a metal by using an immersion heater.
- Case study: Investigate whether warm water freezes faster than cool water by researching the ‘Mpemba effect’. Conduct experiments based on the Mpemba effect; for example, investigating rate vs container size, type of material, covered / uncovered, or stirred / unstirred.
- Experiment: Use a predict-observe-explain approach to investigate what happens when:
- a small vial full of ice water with red dye is gently poured into a large beaker of hot water
- a small vial full of hot water with blue dye is gently poured into a large beaker of cold water
- 2 litres of blue-dyed cold water is added to 3 litres of red-dyed hot water in a bucket. Note the initial and final water temperatures; discuss observations with respect to thermal energy transfer.
- Literature review: Compare advertisements for roof paint that claim to keep the interior of homes cooler; identify and develop a method to test each claim.
- Experiment: Investigate whether two identical open glasses, filled with hot and warm water respectively, can cool at room temperature at the same rate. Check whether the glass filled with hot water reaches a lower temperature than the glass filled with warm water and explain the results.
- Modelling: Read online
case studies of people who leave children or pets in cars on hot days leading to serious risks to life. Model the heating of the interior of cars using painted soft-drink cans and sealing a thermometer into the drinking hole using Blu-tac or plasticine. Holes could be punched into the can to represent partly (or fully) opened windows. Develop investigable questions relating to factors that may affect how quickly, and what temperatures were reached, inside the car. For example: ‘Do small cars heat up faster (or reach a higher temperature) than large cars? How much difference does winding down the window (from a little way up to all the way) make to heating up the inside of a car? Is window tinting effective in reducing internal temperatures? Are lighter coloured cars better at keeping the car cool than darker colours? Investigate the rate of heating and maximum temperatures reached by considering different variables: size; exterior colour; colour of the interior trim; whether the windows are fully closed; time of day.
- Literature review: Explain the thermodynamics of cold and hot packs.
- Re-tell a children’s story to explain the associated physics concepts; for example, explaining the hot porridge in ‘Goldilocks and the Three Bears’.
- Experiment: Design and undertake practical explorations of change in temperature and change of state with a focus on the development of practical skills including: observation; recording of qualitative and quantitative data; graphical analysis; and consideration of accuracy, precision, repeatability and reproducibility.
- Literature review: Investigate how concepts of conduction, convection, radiation, specific heat capacity and latent heat capacity are used to determine the energy rating of appliances and features of homes; for example, insulation, glazing (type and size), choice of lighting, floor covering, window coverings, and appliances.
-
Experiment: Explore conduction, convection, and radiation by setting up laboratory stations with short thermodynamics activities around the room. Relate the ideas to methods used for heating and cooling homes. (see Detailed example 2)
- Product, process, or system development: Design, build and test a simple system using household items to heat water using the energy from the Sun; evaluate its effectiveness in capturing available solar radiation and the impact of various design features.
- Experiment: Undertake investigations and simulations related to energy, such as those from the Nuffield Foundation and Institute of Physics.
- Explore conceptual understandings and alternative prior conceptions of thermal energy using techniques such as those described by the
conceptual understanding procedures (CUPs), which include the activity ‘Hot stuff’.
- Experiment: Research and apply the Angstrom method of measuring conductivity to investigate the conductivity of heat through different substances.
- Experiment: Devise an experiment to investigate whether mint (the plant) really cools things down.
Key knowledge: Interaction of thermal energy and electromagnetic radiation
- Experiment: Observe the colour of hot objects as the temperature increases and relate this to the concept of black body radiation.
- Simulation: Explore black body radiation using a simulation (for example,
Blackbody Spectrum by PhET).
- Literature review: Determine pre-conceptions held in the class by using a context related to the warming of Earth; for example, the NASA global climate change site. Capture interest using engaging images, simulations and current information for exploration.
- Modelling: Develop an infographic to communicate in terms of relevant physics (such as energy transfer, transformation, and temperature change) how global warming is occurring on Earth, and the role and impact of human activities upon this.
- Literature review: Design and investigate the effects of different types of earth surfaces (for example, ice, grass, concrete, sand, water) on energy reflection or absorption. Relate findings to land use and its effects on atmospheric energy and global warming.
- Discuss how the following quote by George Bernard Shaw applies to thermodynamics: ‘Science never solves one problem without raising ten more problems’ (from a speech Shaw made at the Savoy Hotel in London in October 1030, at a dinner in Einstein’s honour).
- Experiment: Undertake investigations and simulations related to energy such as those from the
Nuffield Foundation and Institute of Physics.
- Simulation: Use a simulation to explore the physics of the
Greenhouse Effect by PhET.
Detailed example 1
Experiment: How does the refractive index of a liquid vary with concentration and temperature?
Since the density of a liquid usually decreases with temperature, it would be expected that the speed of light in a liquid would increase as the temperature increases and therefore that the index of refraction would decrease as the temperature increases for a liquid. Although largely a confirmation-type investigation, this activity provides an opportunity to discuss and differentiate between experimental error and uncertainty
Preparation notes
- A triangular tank (acting as a prism) into which liquids can be poured can be constructed using epoxy glue or silicone to glue together three microscope slides (glued on their edges to form the walls of the chamber) onto a triangular-shaped piece of glass that has been cut to measure using a glass cutter (to form the base of the chamber).
- A school laser pointer may be used as the light source to shine through the triangular tank.
- The triangular tank can be placed onto a hotplate with different temperature settings when testing for effects of temperature changes.
Science skills
Teachers should identify and inform students of the relevant science skills embedded in the task.
Health and safety notes
Students should be warned about the safe use of lasers and safe use of heating apparatus.
Method
- Students should decide which method they will use to measure the refraction of light. One method leading to the calculation of the refractive index is shown below, as an example.
Diagram 1
Image description
- Students should all measure the refractive index of water, using their apparatus.
- To investigate the effect of changing concentration on refractive index, students may be allocated different concentrations of liquids to test in their triangular tanks, for example: 5%, 10%, 15%, 20%, 25% and 30% solutions of sugar or salt.
- To investigate the effect of changing temperature, students may place their triangular tanks flat onto a hotplate to calculate the refractive indices of water and / or a selected concentration of a nominated solution at different temperatures.
Discussion questions and report writing in logbook
Students record investigation results in their logbooks and calculate the refractive indices for their selected solutions. Class results may be collated in order that general trends can be determined and discussed.
Extension
Teachers may use this experiment as the basis of a ‘coupled’ investigation. Suitable questions as a coupled investigation include:
- How can the apparatus be modified to produce more accurate and / or precise results?
- Is there a difference between the relationship between refractive index and temperature of solutions of ionic versus molecular solutes?
- Is the relationship between refractive index and temperature related to the coefficient of volume expansion?
- Can the refractive indices of saturated, monounsaturated and polyunsaturated oils be used to distinguish between them?
- Could an alternative to laser eye surgery be changing the refractive index of the eye’s vitreous or aqueous humours?
- How does the refractive index of pure water ice compare with that of frozen carbonated water?
Detailed example 2
Experiment: Stopping at all thermodynamic stations
Aim
To explore the thermodynamic concepts of conduction, convection and radiation and to relate these concepts to applications involving different methods for heating and cooling homes.
Preparation
Teachers should organise an appropriate number of stations. Stations could include:
-
Scientific observation and measurement: put a piece of ice into a small glass filled with vegetable oil; qualitatively and quantitatively analyse its motion.
-
Thermal effects: compare the effects of placing potassium permanganate crystals in a beaker of hot water and a beaker of cold water.
-
Comparison of temperature above and beside a candle: using a cardboard tube, place it vertically above the candle and then place it horizontally adjacent to the flame; find the temperature of the air at the furthest end of the tube in each instance.
-
Convection and flight: make a hollow cylindrical tube from an empty, dry tea bag; explain the factors that affect the cylinder’s take off when the top end of the cylinder is lit.
-
Convection currents in air: place whirly gigs over a heat source.
-
Convection currents in water: half fill a beaker with cold water; using a spatula, gently drop a few crystals of potassium permanganate down one side of the beaker; use a Bunsen burner to heat the base of the beaker where the crystals had fallen.
-
Effect of colour: take readings of temperatures of thermometers that are painted different colours and placed in a sunny spot in the laboratory or outdoors.
-
Movement of heat: heat different types of metal rods and compare how long it takes for the heat to reach the end of the rod; affix corks with wax along the length of the rod to assist in measuring time.
-
Temperature gradient in warm water: place a temperature probe into some warm water; gently pour some hot water onto the top of the warm water; leave for a minute. Slowly remove the temperature probe and watch the temperature gradient as the probe is removed.
-
Conduction in metal: time how long it takes the temperature at the end of a metal rod to increase when held in a flame and compare with rods made of different metals; use wax to attach corks at 10 cm intervals along the rods to monitor the progress of heat conduction.
Health and safety notes
- Safety data sheets for chemicals used (for example, potassium permanganate) must be distributed to students.
- Students must be reminded of safe use of heating apparatus.
Science skills
Teachers should identify and inform students of the relevant key science skills embedded in the task.
Method
Students should work through the activity at each station and record results in their logbooks. Data may include descriptive observations, temperature readings, photographs and labelled sketches.
Discussion
Students could set up a table to show how the results of each station activity relate to different household methods for cooling and heating.
Outcome 2
On completion of this unit the student should be able to explain, apply and evaluate nuclear radiation, radioactive decay and nuclear energy.
Examples of learning activities
Key knowledge: Radiation from the nucleus
-
Simulation: Simulate how unstable (radioactive) elements change into more stable nuclei; explore the concept of half-life using a container of M&Ms®, Skittles® or two-sided discs with different colours on each side; perform a series of ‘spills’ and ‘removals’ to model nuclear decay. (see Detailed example)
- Experiment: Use a radiation counter to record the activity of a variety of real or simulated short-lived radioactive sources, observe their decay and determine their half-life.
- Simulation: Use the University of Sydney’s
Radiation dose Calculator to estimate your annual radiation dose due to background radiation.
- Simulation: Explore the properties of different types of radiation using a simulation or remotely accessible experiment (for example:
Farlabs Nuclear simulation).
- Access the information and infographics from the Australian Radiation Protection and Nuclear Safety Agency (ARPANSA) and discuss the concept of ‘risk’ in terms of ionising radiation with a general question such as, ‘Is there an agreed level of risk that is acceptable?’
- Literature review: Research and explain how a Geiger counter (Geiger-Mueller tube or G-M counter) operates.
- Simulation: Investigate shielding effects and / or the relationship between intensity and distance from a radioactive source.
- Access the resources at
US EPA to explore ideas related to ionising and non-ionising radiation.
- Classification and identification: Explain how α, β-, β+ and γ radiation can be distinguished on the basis of their properties.
- Estimate your annual radiation dose due to background radiation using the online ‘Annual Radiation Dose’ calculator; explain why this is an estimation rather than a calculation.
- Literature review: Explain how radioactive decay is used to make reliable predictions in the radiometric dating of materials.
- Case study: Access the resource at
US EPA to research the contribution of females to understanding of nuclear physics concepts; discuss the intersection between physics and chemistry in describing nuclear concepts; discuss how scientific ideas develop over time and are assisted by improvements in technology and collaboration between scientists.
- Literature review: Create a simple chart or annotated diagram to explain how a radiation-based smoke detector works, including information about the selection of the radiation source and type, and the arrangements that should be made for its disposal.
- Fieldwork: Visit the radiology department of a local hospital; construct a one-page infographic or patient information sheet that summarises the types of diagnostic and treatment options offered by the department, including the medical purposes for each option offered.
- Case study: Enter ‘Mr Peters and the use of radioisotopes in brain scans’ into a search engine to discuss the use of
radioisotopes in medicine.
- Fieldwork: Compare the intensity of background radiation inside and outside a building, in well-ventilated and poorly ventilated areas, at ground level and the top floor of a multi-level building, and inside wood-, concrete- and plaster-walled rooms.
- Experiment: Undertake investigations and simulations related to atoms and nuclei such as those from the Nuffield Foundation and Institute of Physics.
- Case study: Work in groups to research the socio-scientific question as to whether radiation from mobile phones is associated with human health concerns; for example, using
phone radiation case studies as stimulus materials for consideration. Consider the reliability and validity of sources of information using questions such as, ‘What is the authority of the source of information?’ and ‘When was the information published?’
- Simulation: Investigate alpha and beta decay using simulations (for example:
Alpha Decay by PhET and
Beta Decay by PHeT).
- Literature review: Explain how the
18O content of water in ancient ice provides information about climate change and enables scientists to make predictions.
- Literature review: Discuss the benefits and unexpected consequences of the use of alpha decay in smoke alarms.
- Case study: Work in groups to identify how workers in a selected industry involving the use of radioactive materials are protected (for example, medical applications, nuclear power plants, food industry).
Key knowledge: Nuclear energy
- Simulation: Investigate nuclear fission and fusion using simulations (for example:
Nuclear Fission by PhET.
- Describe the process of fusion and explain the statement: ‘We are all only stardust after all’.
- Literature review: Research the use of fusion and fission as sources of power and compare their viability as an energy source for use in Australia.
- Product, process or system development: Research
Jackson Oswalt’s entry into the Guinness Book of Records as the youngest person to have constructed a working fusion reactor; explain how fusion is achieved, defining relevant physics terminology so that it can be understood by a general audience; compare Jackson Oswalt’s process with another
fusion technique, such as the laser-powered nuclear fusion experiment discussed or with the process of nuclear fusion that occurs in the Sun.
- Fieldwork: Work in small groups to conduct a survey to determine whether people are in favour of Australia developing nuclear power as an energy source; present findings in a graph or other visual representation; compare the extent of agreement between the findings of different groups; identify trends in data; for example, report findings in categories such as selected demographics.
- Case study: access reports of nuclear accidents; for example, overviews of the
nuclear incidents at Chernobyl, Fukushima, Kyshtym, Windscale and Three Mile Island; work in groups to summarise causes and effects; respond to the socio-scientific question as to whether nuclear power should be considered in Australia.
- Classification and identification: Compare the similarities and differences between fusion and fission reactions. Why is energy released in both reactions? What are the end products in each case? Summarise your findings using a graphic organiser such as a Venn diagram.
Detailed example
Simulating radioactive decay and half-lives
Background
- A radioactive element will have some nuclei that are stable and other nuclei that are unstable. The stable nuclei don’t change but the unstable nuclei transmute or ‘decay’ into more stable nuclei and emit radioactivity. The half-life is the time taken for half the radioactive nuclei to decay. Half-lives vary for different elements; for example, lithium-8 has a half-life of 0.85 seconds while uranium-238 has a half-life of 4.51 billion years.
Aim
To simulate how unstable (radioactive) elements change into more stable nuclei and to explore the concept of half-life.
Materials (for each group of students)
- between 60 and 130 M&Ms®, Skittles® or two-sided discs with different colours on each side in a container to represent unstable nuclei
- 1 plastic or paper cup
- 2 sheets of paper towelling
- graph paper or a spreadsheet
Method
- Place between 60 and 130 M&Ms®, Skittles® or two-sided discs with different colours on each side into a plastic or paper cup to represent unstable nuclei.
- Carefully spill the ‘nuclei’ onto a paper towel sheet. The spill represents a half-life of a radioactive element.
- Spread the nuclei out on the paper towel to identify whether the manufacture’s label, or a selected disc colour, is facing ‘up’ or ‘down’.
- The ‘up’ facing nuclei represents decayed nuclei, and should be counted, recorded in a table such as the one below, removed and placed onto a second paper towel sheet.
- The remaining nuclei are replaced in the plastic or paper cup, and spilled again to represent the second half-life. Decayed nuclei should be counted, recorded and removed.
- Step 5 should be repeated until all nuclei have decayed.
Results
Students record their results in their logbook using a table based on the following:
Spill
(half-life) |
Expected number
of nuclei remaining based on previous sample size |
Actual number of nuclei remaining after spill |
% decayed nuclei |
|---|
| 0 | (Starting number of nuclei) | | |
| 1 | | | |
| 2 | | | |
| 3 | | | |
| 4 | | | |
| 5 | | | |
| 6 | | | |
Students graph their results by plotting the spill (half-life) on the
x-axis and the number of remaining nuclei on the
y-axis.
Discussion
Class results should be collated and students could respond to a series of graded questions, for example:
-
Identify: What are the strengths and weaknesses of this activity as a simulation of radioactive decay?
-
Calculate and compare: How do your experimental results compare with predicted results?
-
Compare and explain: Is there an advantage to collating class results?
-
Apply: How does collating class results relate to radioactive nuclei?
-
Explain: Can half-life predict the actual length of time it takes for a particular nucleus to decay?
-
Compare and analyse: How is the graph of your results similar to, and different from, the graphs of other students? How is the graph of your results similar to, and different from, the graph of collated class results?
-
Evaluate: Does half-life depend on the initial mass of the sample?
-
Evaluate and explain: If you could track a particular nucleus in a radioactive sample, could you predict when it would decay?
Extension
This activity can be extended using a die. Calculations of theoretical half-lives in each case are more complicated than using M&Ms®, Skittles® or two-sided discs with different colours on each side, and will require application of probabilities.
- Students roll a die where rolling a 1 corresponds to decaying, and record results.
- Students roll a die where rolling a 1 or 2 corresponds to decaying, and record results.
- Students compare results and comment on predictability of radioactive decay of nuclei.
Outcome 3
On completion of this unit the student should be able to investigate and apply a basic DC circuit model to simple battery-operated devices and household electrical systems, apply mathematical models to analyse circuits, and describe the safe and effective use of electricity by individuals and the community.
Examples of learning activities
Key knowledge: Concepts used to model electricity
- Modelling: Compare and evaluate analogies used to explain current and potential difference.
- Experiment: Experiment with a bulb, a battery and one lead and suggest how the bulb can be made to light up.
Key knowledge: Circuit electricity
- Experiment: Experiment with a set of batteries and light bulbs in various series and parallel combinations and explain the observations; add ammeters and voltmeters to the batteries and light bulb circuits to measure the currents, voltages and resistances of the bulbs.
- Experiment: Investigate whether two 60 W light bulbs shine brighter than three 40 W light bulbs.
- Experiment: Construct a simple circuit with a number of different arrangements of resistors to explore resistance in series and parallel; compare your measurements to expected values from calculations.
- Explore the use of voltmeters and ammeters to measure voltage and current; investigate how they must be connected to a circuit to provide correct readings and what happens to both the device and measurements if incorrectly connected.
- Simulation: Use a simulation to model the operation of a DC circuit; explore the effect of changing circuit configuration (for example:
Circuit Construction Kit DC by PhET).
- Explore conceptual understandings and alternative prior conceptions of electricity using techniques such as those described by the
conceptual understanding procedures (CUPs), which include the activities ‘What is the current?’ and ‘What is the reading on the voltmeter?’
Key knowledge: Using electricity
Key knowledge: Electrical safety in the home
- Literature review: Construct a table of typical power usage of domestic appliances and investigate domestic electrical safety provisions.
- Modelling: Make a model of a fuse; explain how a fuse helps to prevent a fire caused by faulty household electricity wiring; compare the operation and use of fuses to residual current devices.
- Literature review: Produce a flowchart to show what happens when somebody receives an electric shock; annotate the chart with notes related to a media article on an aspect of electric shock.
- Case study: Discuss examples of brownouts and power failures caused by an increase in the use of household electrical devices during extreme weather events (for example, bushfires or blizzards).
Detailed example
Investigation of electrical appliances
A range of old domestic electrical appliances can easily be obtained by an appeal to the school community. Items such as toasters, hair dryers, irons and heaters are suitable. For safety reasons it is important to remove any cords and plugs. Teachers should also limit the appliances that can be dismantled; for example, devices such as microwave ovens or any device that may have large voltage energy stored in a capacitor should not be permitted for dismantling.
The appliances can be prepared so that it is not too difficult for students to dismantle them. Students draw a circuit diagram of the wiring in the appliance. Where necessary, help them to identify components such as thermostats and safety cut-outs.
Switches will often be found that combine elements in different series and parallel combinations to alter the power settings. In the case of heating elements, the resistance can be determined and from that an estimate made of the power used in the appliance. This can be compared with the rating on the appliance. Where electric motors are involved, the resistance will not give a good indication. The reasons for this can be discussed with students.
Ensure that any appliances examined are not reassembled for use.
Unit 2: How does physics help us to understand the world?
Outcome 1
On completion of this unit the student should be able to investigate, analyse, mathematically model and apply force, energy and motion.
Examples of learning activities
General activities
- Experiment: Undertake investigations and simulations related to forces, motion and energy such as those on the
Nuffield Foundation and Institute of Physics website (Practical Physics).
- Explore key misconceptions related to forces and motion using resources such as those from the
Institute of Physics; for example ‘Many pupils have an unclear idea of acceleration and cannot reliably separate it from speed’.
Key knowledge: Concepts used to model motion
- Fieldwork: Observe, measure and record data taken from an excursion to a playground or amusement park; provide detailed graphical analysis of each motion observed, estimating displacement, speed and acceleration.
- Classification and identification: Discuss the nature and difference between scalar and vector quantities, and how each describes different aspects of motion; use simple examples to illustrate the use of scalars and vectors to represent motion.
- Modelling: Create a story based on a velocity-time graph; provide a graph with multiple lines plotted in different colours and velocity and time axes marked without a scale. Work in groups with each group creating and acting out a story based on what they imagine is happening; include the use of relevant physics quantities and correct directions and nature of motion in the story.
- Modelling: Work in groups to construct different graphical representations using sections from popular movies or television shows involving motion (for example, chase scenes); swap graphs with other groups and write a script based on the graphs; compare the original movie or television scene with the group scripts.
- Classification and identification: Use examples to discuss the meaning of negative velocities and accelerations.
- Experiment: Measure the acceleration due to gravity using a bouncing ball (such as a superball) on concrete: as the ball bounces the sound of each successive collision with a hard surface can be captured using a microphone and a sound-recording program (for example,
Audacity), so that the time interval between bounces can be calculated. Note: the height of each successive bounce is a constant fraction of the previous height; this constant fraction is called ‘restitution’ and could be approximately 0.7 for a superball on concrete.
- Explore conceptual understandings and alternative prior conceptions of motion using techniques such as those described by the
conceptual understanding procedures (CUPs), which include the activities ‘Driving to Hilary’s’ and ‘Throwing a hockey ball’.
- Experiment: Use a motion detector or a sensor on a device to describe simple walking movements with reference to distance, speed and acceleration.
- Simulation: Explore the characteristics of constant acceleration motion and associated graphs using simulations such as ‘Motion with Constant Acceleration’ from
Walter Fendt.
- Analyse the motion of straight line runs along a set distance using real data captured on a school oval, simulated data, or data from world record 100-metre sprints such as
‘Usain Bolt 100m 10-metre splits’; use times taken for each 10-metre segment to create displacement-time, velocity-time and acceleration-time graphs.
- Literature review: Research how the apex vent in parachutes was invented; explain how this innovation improved the use of parachutes in a particular context; for example, delivering food and medicine to flood-, fire- and drought-affected countries.
- Experiment: Investigate how the drop time of a parachute is affected by different variables; for example, mass, canopy size, canopy shape, size of apex vent, and number or length of strings.
- Re-tell a children’s story to explain the associated physics concepts; for example, explaining the broken chairs in ‘Goldilocks and the Three Bears’.
- Discuss whether it is possible to predict maximum speeds at which a human could travel when running or swimming.
- Literature review: Work in groups to compare different methods used to determine the speed of a car; for example, radars, laser guns, and point-to-point cameras.
- Fieldwork: Determine the best location along a selected road for point-to-point cameras to identify speeding vehicles.
Key knowledge: Forces and motion
- Compare the explanation of motion offered by Aristotle and Newton for a ball rolling downhill.
- Explore conceptual understandings and alternative prior conceptions of motion using techniques such as those described by the
conceptual understanding procedures (CUPs) which include the activities ‘Hitting a golf ball’, ‘Dropping a golf ball and a foam ball’, ‘Forces on a can of peaches’ and ‘Rudolph’s trouble with Newton’s third law’.
- Simulation: Investigate balancing forces using a simulation (for example:
Forces and Motion Basics by PhET).
- Experiment: Use bathroom scales to measure reaction forces when sitting, leaning against a wall and walking on the scales. Observe the change in reaction force when riding a lift in a tall building.
- Experiment: Measure the acceleration of trolleys of different masses under the influence of a range of known forces.
- Literature review: Present an example of an application that involves an understanding that maximising the time during which a force acts leads to an increase in speed; for example, the use of a woomera for throwing, long rowing strokes and the follow-through actions in cricket, golf or tennis.
- Discuss examples in sports science where maximising the force applied leads to an increase in speed; for example, the force applied to a tennis ball using a tennis racquet or using a foot to kick a football in Australian Rules football.
- Determine variations in the gravitational field strength (g) at different points on Earth’s surface; for example, sea level compared with Mt Everest. Predict and validate whether there would be differences between values of g in students’ home locations.
- Case study: Investigate the reasons that a falling object usually does not accelerate at the expected rate of 9.8 m s-2. Use examples such as the case study from
Wired ‘The Greatest Physics Demo of All Time Happened on the Moon and the original video of the Hammer and Feather Experiment from NASA.
- Experiment: Determine the force due to gravity by recording an object falling against an appropriate scale using a ticker-timer, motion sensor, video program or other multi-image application; construct a velocity versus time graph; compare and discuss the resolution of the instruments and the precision of data.
- Product, process or system development: Investigate Newton’s three laws of motion by constructing balloon cars, two-stage balloon rockets and other structures found at
Science buddies.
- Experiment: Stand a wooden block on its end and give it a slow push with the point of a pencil or pen. The block will either slide along or tip over. Investigate the factors that determine whether the block slides or tips.
- Make a presentation to a public interest group on appropriate speed limits in built-up areas.
- Case study: Discuss Galileo’s famous ‘thought experiment’ in his dialogues in which he shows the logical flaws in Aristotle’s argument that an object will fall at a speed according to the force on it due to gravity.
- Experiment: Investigate the factors that affect friction. Attach a set of slotted masses via a fishing line and pulley to an object and use the surface it is moving on for a retarding frictional force; select one variable for the object that can be changed independently (for example, mass, surface area, surface type); use a ticker timer or a data logger to measure the average acceleration of the object and use Newton’s second law to calculate the friction force acting on the object. Obtain a set of data for the friction force as the variable quantity that is being investigated is systematically varied; produce a graph of the data and make evidence-based comments that can be supported by the graph about the effect of the selected investigation variable on the friction force.
- Case study: Discuss how Robert McNeill Alexander explained the importance of inertial forces versus gravitational forces in determining which gaits land animals use to move at different speeds and to predict the gait and speed of dinosaurs.
- Product, process or system development: Design and construct a ‘gravity car’ (a car that uses a falling weight to transfer energy to a wheel rotation).
- Experiment: Investigate non-contact collisions by attaching magnets to trolleys.
Key knowledge: Energy and motion
- Experiment: Investigate a collision to explore momentum conservation; use either an actual collision using experimental equipment such as trolleys or an air track; alternatively analyse a video either qualitatively or by using motion analysis software such as
Tracker.
- Experiment: Take measurements to determine power outputs as each class member runs up a flight of stairs.
- Experiment: Graph force versus extension for a catapult and relate the stored energy to the vertical height to which it will fire a projectile; ensure safe use of the catapult.
- Simulation: Investigate energy transformations using a simulation (for example:
Energy Skate Park by PhET).
- Experiment: Investigate Hooke’s Law in ideal springs using either physical springs or a suitable simulation; use measurements taken to estimate one or more of the spring constant, extension, or applied force (for example:
Masses and Springs by PhET).
- Experiment: Design experiments to investigate Hooke’s Law using different ‘springs’; for example, elastic bands, rubber bands, cooked spaghetti or noodles, or stranded confectionary.
- Experiment: Investigate the strength of different thicknesses of spaghetti by hanging weights from the middle of each strand; test displacement (sag) versus weight for various span widths or for different strand diameters; plot data results on a graph and draw conclusions about the strength of spaghetti.
- Compare the precision and resolution in the use of analogue and digital meters in analysing energy and motion.
- Literature review: Investigate the role of impulse and momentum in automotive safety using online resources such as those from the
Insurance Institute for Highway Safety.
- Experiment: Investigate the properties of running shoes by collecting force-compression data for a variety of running shoe soles; estimate the force on the runner’s foot while running; construct a heel shaped from wood with a flat upper surface that can be loaded with bricks or other heavy objects (some form of horizontal stabilisation will be required that will not significantly affect the load). Use a telemicroscope or similar device to measure the amount of compression under a range of loads that will approximate the forces likely to occur in running. Construct graphs of compression versus load for a variety of running shoes, look at the differences between the graphs and relate the differences to the particular properties or construction of the shoes. Respond to a pre-determined or negotiated question such as, ‘Are there significant differences between the expensive and the cheaper shoes?’
- Use the concept of impulse to explain the elasticity of bungee cords.
- Product, process or system design: Design a protective casing for an egg that is dropped from a height; explain how the concept of impulse is involved in the design.
Key knowledge: Equilibrium
- Experiment: Investigate equilibrium using either a physical balance, see-saw or a simulation; use balancing to determine the mass of an unknown object (for example:
Balancing Act by PhET).
- Experiment: Investigate the use of equilibrium to balance everyday objects such as books, rulers, pencils and other common materials over the edge of a table or other pivot point; explore unusual combinations that produce unlikely-looking balanced objects.
Key knowledge: Application of motion
Detailed example
Experiment: Observing movement in different contexts
Aim
To observe, record, analyse and report on movement in different contexts.
Introduction
A wide range of data collection devices can be used to record the motion of objects. Useful comparisons between tickertape and electronic methods of recording motion may be made. Other alternatives for measuring motion include ultrasonic detectors, accelerometers, light gates, two photogates, electronic timer circuits and video analysis.
Science skills
Teachers should identify and inform students of the relevant key skills embedded in the task.
Procedure
Students may work in self-selected groups to investigate, analyse and communicate the results of experiments involving motion in one dimension. Primary data may be analysed individually or as a group, and students will also have an opportunity to analyse secondary data as presented by other groups from their investigations. Three examples of different types of motion that may be investigated are as follows:
Student group 1: Falling down
- Use a video recorder to record 5–10 seconds of different objects being dropped from a height and falling vertically.
- Either from the video or using alternative measurements gathered by ultrasonic detectors, produce quantitative data and prepare accurate graphs of the movement.
- Analyse the motion using one or more relevant physics concepts. Contrast, compare and account for the values measured and calculated.
- Present the findings in an electronic format such as a web page, slideshow or video, including a set of questions for the rest of the class to complete as second-hand data analysis.
Student group 2: Rolling objects
- Explore the motion of wheeled or other objects, such as a low friction car, rolling along different horizontal surfaces.
- Perform measurements along ‘the run’ to determine the speed and vertical displacement of the ‘car’.
- Calculate the expected values of kinetic energy at suitable points along ‘the run’.
- Analyse the motion using one or more relevant physics concepts. Contrast, compare and account for the values measured and calculated.
- Present the findings in an electronic format such as a web page, slideshow or video, including a set of questions for the rest of the class to complete as second-hand data analysis.
Student group 3: Splashing
- Set up a burette full of water with several drops of food colouring in it above a container of liquid so that it can release single droplets to create a ‘splash’.
- Use a video recorder capable of nine frames per second to explore the effect of height of release on the splash and bounce.
- Analyse the motion using one or more relevant physics concepts. Contrast, compare and account for the values measured and calculated.
- Present the findings in an electronic format such as a web page, slideshow or video, including a set of questions for the rest of the class to complete as second-hand data analysis.
- Note: the burette may be replaced by a disposable plastic tapered pipette / dropper that can be cut down to produce different drop sizes, to investigate the effect of different drop sizes on splash and bounce. The volume of a drop can be calculated by allowing 100 drops to fall from the burette or pipette / dropper into a beaker on an electronic balance and using the known density of water (density = mass divided by volume).
Teaching notes
- It is important that students are able to transpose formulas and perform calculations; some students may need assistance with this.
- These activities provide opportunities to develop scientific skills including graphical construction and analysis; the task could be modified to include students formulating hypotheses and making predictions about motion.
Outcome 2
On completion of this unit the student should be able to investigate and apply physics knowledge to develop and communicate an informed response to a contemporary societal issue or application related to a selected option.
Examples of learning activities
General activities and approaches
Students should select an option of interest. Depending on resources and facilities at the school, not all options may be available to students. This area of study provides opportunities for students to identify, investigate and communicate the physics concepts associated with physics-based socio-scientific issues. Teachers may elect to use a flipped classroom approach to support student agency.
- Provide students with a summary of the 18 options in this area of study; organise students who have selected the same option to work in groups to research the key knowledge points in the study design; ask students to compare and summarise research findings; discuss and clarify concepts, discrepant findings and misconceptions that arise from student research.
-
Use a Socratic seminar to support student agency in exploring contemporary physics-related issues in society (for example:
Socratic Seminars on DET FUSE). (see Detailed example)
- Create a short video or animation explaining a contemporary physics-related issue for a specific audience such as students, parents, politicians or business people.
- Develop a visual representation, infographic, poster or oral presentation that unpacks a contemporary physics-related issue.
- Communicate a physics-based response to a socio-scientific issue, for example:
- a petition to local government about the possible impact on trees of the siting of solar panels (Option 2.1)
- an opinion piece about the viability of nuclear power as an energy source for Australia (Option 2.2)
- a letter to a newspaper about the proposed siting of a nuclear power station, including data summaries to back up arguments (Option 2.2)
- a critique of building standards for earthquake-resistant buildings (Option 2.4)
- an opinion piece about funding space research (Options 2.13, 2.14, 2.17 and 2.18).
Examples of socio-scientific questions to investigate
- How does the colour of building roofs, cloud cover, ocean ice cover, or forest coverage impact upon global warming?
- How can building design and construction in Australia be improved to decrease energy usage while retaining comfort?
- Is nuclear power viable for Australia?
- Is there any danger in Australia adopting nuclear powered submarines?
- Is research into fusion energy value for money?
- How does flight transport impact global warming?
- Are electric powered aircraft a viable alternative in the next decade?
- How can the impact of flight transport on global warming be reduced?
- Could wing in ground effect vehicles be the future of efficient transport over oceans?
- How are structures designed to suit the needs of clients?
- Can skyscrapers be constructed from timber instead of metal and concrete?
- How does the cost of prosthetic limbs limit access?
- Are X-rays safe?
- How could medical radiation use for imaging or treatment improve in the next decade?
- How does radiation affect young Australians?
- How can electricity be used to improve quality of life?
- Are the latest innovations in vision enhancement viable for all Australians?
- How has the readily available use of digital cameras affected the way we live?
- Can tiny phone cameras produce images of quality as high as a traditional single lens reflex camera?
- Is music made on the computer real music?
- Does use of personal music players necessarily mean increased damage to hearing?
- How can tiny speakers in earphones and other devices produce sound that appears to be very high in quality and fidelity?
- How can balls be designed for maximum performance in particular sports?
- How can the spin of balls in different sports be used to achieve different competitive advantages?
- Can the use of simple heat and light sensors significantly reduce home energy usage?
- How has solar energy storage impacted the use of solar panels?
- How does innovation in technology improve astrophysics observations?
- How may interaction with intelligent extra-terrestrials impact life?
- How does knowledge of the physics of traditional ideas help reconciliation with Traditional Owners of Australia?
- What are the benefits of having a particle accelerator in our region?
- Why should we care about the origins of matter?
- How has the detection of gravitational waves impacted our understanding of the Universe?
- Why is an awareness of contemporary physics research in our region important?
- How does a specific example of cutting-edge physics research from our region have the potential to positively impact on our society?
Detailed example
Use Socratic seminars to support student agency in exploring contemporary physics-related issues in society
Introduction: Socratic seminars can be used to develop students’ skills in questioning and communicating scientific ideas. These seminars value discussion rather than debate, and inquiry rather than information. They involve students discussing open-ended questions to which there may be a variety of views, listening to the comments of other students, and expressing their own ideas and their responses to the ideas of others. Socratic seminars require that students work cooperatively and question critically and politely. Students may respectfully challenge other students’ interpretations or offer alternative views. In this example, Socratic seminars will be used as a technique to support student agency in responding to a physics-related question of interest. The teacher uses it after students have selected an option to investigate and have completed and collated their background research.
Step 1: Students self-select into groups to research their option of interest related to the overall question in the area of study, ‘How does physics inform contemporary issues and applications in society?’. Time should be allocated for students to research their options both inside and outside of class. Students may work in groups on the same option, but each student must record their own background research and notes in their logbooks and present their own response to their option question.
Step 2: Establish conduct protocols for the Socratic seminars with the class. Guidelines may include: one person speaking at a time; everyone has a turn in speaking and asking questions; understanding that different people will have different points of view about controversial topics; and ensuring that discussions focus on the arguments and views presented by each student without criticism of the person.
Step 3: Depending on class size and number of topics selected, organise students into one or more sets of an inner circle and an outer circle.
- The inner circle should be comprised of students who have selected the same option. Students in the inner circle should respond to the option question. For example, Option 2.1 asks, ‘How does physics explain climate change?’ Students in the inner circle should not speak to the teacher; instead, they should speak to the other students in the inner circle who are exploring the same option question. They should respond to the option question as well as listen to each others’ ideas about the question and ask their own further questions so that deeper understanding is facilitated.
- The outer circle should be comprised of students who have selected a different option(s). Students sitting in the outer circle should not speak during the seminar. They should observe and actively listen. They may record questions that could be presented to students in the inner circle at the end of the inner circle discussions, or they could present clarifying questions and / or comments to students in the inner circle at the end of the seminar, or they could be asked to summarise the main points in the discussions between students in the inner circle.
- If teachers have organised more than one set of inner and outer circle seminars, then one student in the outer circle should be appointed to ensure that student discussions in the inner circle are on-topic.
Step 4: Swap the students in the inner and outer circles so that a different area of study option is discussed in the inner circle, and students in the outer circle listen and make notes, as in Step 2.
Step 5: Pair students with different option questions to undertake a think-pair-share reflection about the Socratic seminars. Students may share what they found interesting about the seminars, what points require further clarification, and / or how the discussions relate to the overarching area of study question as well as to the option question.
Step 6: Conduct a debriefing session to evaluate the strategies that enabled a better understanding of the overarching area of study question and the option questions, and to discuss the feedback offered through the seminars.
Extension: Socratic seminars may also be used at the end of Unit 2 Area of Study 2 to provide students with an overview of various contemporary physics applications in society. Students seated in the ‘outer circle’ may be required to summarise the main points of each physics option studied by the class and presented in the ‘inner circle’ of a Socratic seminar.
Outcome 3
On completion of this unit the student should be able to draw an evidence-based conclusion from primary data generated from a student-adapted or student-designed scientific investigation related to a selected physics question.
Examples of learning activities
Key knowledge: Investigation design
- Brainstorm key vocabulary related to physics investigations as a class; allocate terms to small groups; have each group research the use of their term and produce a poster or a
Frayer diagram that includes a definition, facts / characteristics, examples, non-examples and a picture. Hold a
gallery walk for students to share their work.
- Discuss the importance of developing investigable questions for scientific investigation considering Albert Einstein’s quote that: ‘The important thing is not to stop questioning’, Robert Half’s quote that ‘Asking the right questions takes as much skill as giving the right answers’ and Nancy Willard’s quote that ‘Sometimes questions are more important than the answers’.
Key knowledge: Scientific evidence
- Crumple a sheet of paper in your hand to form a ‘clot’ approximating a sphere and measure its diameter; collate class data to plot a histogram of clot diameters and account for the shape of the histogram; identify and distinguish between sources of error and uncertainty; use the results to discuss the difference between accuracy, precision, repeatability and reproducibility. Calculate the mean; discuss how the mean would be similar / different if the activity were undertaken by a different class. Explain why accurate measurements are important in physics.
Key knowledge: Science communication
- Select examples of
scientific posters from existing samples or work available online and post them around the room at stations. Students use post-it notes or similar to provide feedback on the samples, identifying two strengths and two weaknesses for each. As a class, students do a walkthrough of all the posters, summarising and discussing their strengths and weaknesses. Develop a whole of class summary of do’s and don’ts for a high-quality scientific poster.
Examples of research topics
The following topics are a sample of practical investigations that may be considered. Students may use different scientific methodologies to generate primary data. The most appropriate methodologies for this area of study are: experiments, fieldwork, modelling, product, process or system development. Simulations may be used in situations where students do not have access to appropriate laboratory equipment and where students are able to manipulate variables to generate a unique data set, but teachers must subsequently determine how students’ ability to design an investigation will be assessed for this outcome. The
International Young Physicists Tournament has interesting challenges and problems that can be adapted to the student investigation for this area of study. Visit
Senior student research for ideas and instructions for projects in physics remembering that teachers should determine the appropriateness of the investigations in terms of resources and safety.
Experiments
Product, process or system development
- How can the efficiency of a model car powered by an elastic air-filled balloon as an energy source be maximised?
- How do the pitch and timbre of a sound depend on the position and diameter of the hole, when produced by blowing into the open end of a flute constructed from a tube that is open at one end and has a hole drilled into its side?
- Construct an ice lens using a watch glass; shine a laser light through it and record the pathway of the light.
- A bowl with a hole in its base will sink when placed in water. The Saxons used this device for timing purposes. What are the parameters that determine the time of sinking?
- Identical discs can be stacked one on top of another to form a freestanding tower. The bottom disc can be removed by applying a sudden horizontal force such that the rest of the tower will drop down onto the surface and the tower remains standing. What are the conditions that allow the tower to remain standing? Are these conditions the same for square or rectangular blocks?
- Construct an optical lens made of air (rather than the usual solid or liquid) such that light can travel through the lens without crossing any material except air. Determine the factors on which its focal length depends.
Modelling
- Set up dominoes in a straight line and calculate and measure experimentally the maximum speed of the wave once the first domino falls to initiate a ‘domino wave’. How is the speed of the wave related to the distance between dominoes? How is the speed of the wave affected if the dominoes are set slightly askew?
- Construct a biconvex ice lens using two watch glasses. Shine a laser light through it and record the pathway of the light. Explain how the biconvex lens can be used to model the functioning of the lens in the human eye.
- Enter ‘Bernoulli’s principle lift of roof’ into a search engine to explore the phenomenon of roofs lifting off houses in storms. How does the wind speed affect the lifting force of a flat roof? Consider lift (the dependent variable) and one of three independent variables (wind speed, area of roof and angle of roof).
- When dropping a metal ball on a rubber membrane stretched over a plastic cup, a sound can be heard. What is the origin of this sound? What are the parameters that affect the characteristics of the sound? How can this ‘sound’ be used to make ‘music’? Explain how this models the sounds from a drum.
Fieldwork
- Is there an ideal angle and direction in which solar panels should be faced?
- How does shade affect the efficiency of solar panels?
- How does dust affect the efficiency of solar panels?
- Are solar cells equally sensitive to light of different wavelengths?
- Can white paint fix global warming?
- Is there a pattern to the movement of raindrops on a window-pane?
- At the start of a game of pool or billiards, 15 coloured balls are placed at one end of the table to form a triangular shape. What are the conditions under which the impact of the 16th ball (white ball) will cause the maximum disorder?
- How can suitcases best be packed to avoid wobbling?
- How can I make my boomerang come back?
- Does humidity affect the bounce or spin of a ball?
- A spherical ball dropped onto a hard surface will never rebound to the release height, even if it has an initial spin. A capsule-shaped object (for example, an Australian rules football or gridiron ball) may exceed the initial height. How can these different phenomena be explained?
- How does aerofoil shape affect performance?
- Observe the phenomenon that bright spots can be seen on dew-drops when they are observed from different angles. Is there a relationship between the number of spots, their location and the angle of observation?
Detailed example
General information on practical investigations
The practical investigation in Unit 2 Area of Study 3 builds on knowledge and skills developed in Unit 2 Area of Study 1 and / or any of the options in Area of Study 2. Teachers must consider the management logistics of the investigation, taking into account: number of students, available resources and student interest. The following questions require consideration:
- What input would students have into the selection of the investigation question?
- Will different groups of students in the class be able to undertake different investigations?
- To what extent will all students consider the same investigation question, or complete different parts to the same question so that class data can be pooled?
- What input would students have into the design of the experiment?
- Will off-school-site work be involved?
Teachers could provide students with a template that structures the investigation into a series of timed phases. Students may subsequently adapt the template as a personal work plan in their logbooks.
What factors affect the detection of sound by the human ear?
Investigation exploration phase
In Unit 2 Area of Study 2, students chose to investigate different options. Part of the communication aspect of the student investigations involved student group presentation of findings to the rest of the class. In this detailed example, the investigation question was generated following student interest in exploring different aspects of music, sound and hearing as a consequence of the initial work of the group of students undertaking Option 2.10: ‘How do instruments make music?’ From this discussion students formulated a number of research questions for investigation, based on a general question: What factors affect the detection of sound by the human ear?
Sample student-generated research questions include:
- What factors affect localisation of sound?
- What instruments are used to mimic bird sounds in classical music?
- Are two ears better than one?
- Are there particular frequencies of sound that older people cannot pick up?
- What factors will improve the sound quality of a homemade PVC pipe instrument?
- Do musicians have better hearing?
Planning phase
Students may need guidance in:
- fitting the investigation into the time available, and developing a work plan
- identifying the technical skills involved in the investigation
- ensuring that resources are available that meet the requirements of the investigation.
Teachers should work with students to:
- determine to what extent students will work independently or in groups (different students or groups may investigate instruments)
- discuss the independent, dependent and controlled variables in proposed experiments
- identify safety aspects associated with undertaking experiments related to hearing and sound
- establish the use of physical units of measurement and standard notation, and how to reference sources and provide appropriate acknowledgments.
Investigation phase
Prior to students undertaking practical investigations, the teacher must approve student-designed methodologies. A possible schedule for management of the multiple investigations in the class is as follows:
- Each student undertakes internet research to find background information related to the general topic for investigation.
- Students work individually or in groups to confirm a research question, formulate a hypothesis and propose a research methodology, including management of relevant safety and health issues.
- Students perform investigations, record and analyse results and prepare final presentation of their findings using an agreed report format to a selected audience.
Processing phase
Students analyse and evaluate their investigation data in order to draw valid, evidence-based conclusions. Depending on the data generated, this may involve:
- graphing data
- using mathematical formulae and relationships
- converting between units
- using scientific notation
- determining significant figures
- considering accuracy, precision, repeatability, reproducibility, resolution, errors and uncertainty.
Reporting phase
Students consider the data generated, report on any errors or problems encountered, and use evidence to explain and answer the investigation question. Other avenues for further investigation may be developed following evaluation of their experimental design and quality of data.
The above phases could be recorded in the student logbook. The report of the investigation can take various forms including a written report, a scientific poster or a multimedia or an oral presentation of the investigation.
Unit 3: How do fields explain motion and electricity?
Outcome 1
On completion of this unit the student should be able to investigate motion and related energy transformations experimentally, and analyse motion using Newton’s laws of motion in one and two dimensions.
Examples of learning activities
General activities
- Experiment: Undertake investigations and simulations related to forces, motion and energy such as those from the
Nuffield Foundation and Institute of Physics's Practical Physics.
- Explore key misconceptions related to forces and motion using resources such as those from the
Institute of Physics. For example: ‘Many students think that an object's acceleration is always in the direction in which the object is facing’.
Key knowledge: Newton’s laws of motion
Key knowledge: Relationships between force, energy and mass
- Simulation: Investigate collisions between objects using simulations; compare velocity, momentum and energy of the objects involved before and after the collision (for example:
Collision Lab by PhET).
- Experiment: Investigate the total momentum before and after various types of collisions between carts or air track gliders.
- Product, process or system development: Apply concepts of momentum and energy to explain how
Newton’s Cradle works. Construct a Newton’s Cradle from scratch, evaluate its efficiency and suggest improvements that could be made.
- Experiment: Use student-designed crumple zones attached to motion trolleys to investigate inelastic collisions (the speed of the motion trolleys can be measured using ticker timers or dataloggers).
- Experiment: Investigate the collision when a table tennis ball partly filled with water is released some distance above the ground, considering factors such as the amount of liquid inside the ball and the release height above the ground.
- Experiment: Investigate the conditions related to a game of pool or billiards under which the impact of a white ball (the 16th ball) can cause maximum disruption of the 15 balls placed together on the table to form an equilateral triangle.
- Investigate motion in sport, for example, high jump:
- Examine the energy changes as a high jump athlete rises, falls and lands on the protective mat. Provide a complete description, prediction and verification of kinetic and potential energy states through a complete cycle.
- Determine the launch and landing speeds from the maximum height.
- Find the force–extension relationship for the protective mat.
- Show what happens when the athlete lands vertically or horizontally.
- Compare kinetic, gravitational potential and potential energy in the mat as well as total energy as a function of position; account for any changes in total energy.
- Present the findings in an electronic format such as a web page, slideshow or video, including a set of questions for the rest of the class to complete as second-hand data analysis.
- Literature review: Discuss various measures to improve road safety (such as reduced speed limits in school zones, automated braking systems, road surface and geometry, air bags, crumple zones, seatbelts, or roadside barriers) from the point of view of the physics involved. Create an infographic, animation or short video to explain the physics involved to a specific audience.
- Experiment: Investigate impulse by dropping eggs onto different surfaces or by throwing eggs at a sheet under a variety of tensions.
- Fieldwork: Investigate the energy transformations in a Luna Park ride.
- Experiment: Measure the speeds of air track gliders before and after impact to investigate the conservation of momentum and the elasticity of a collision.
- Case study: Discuss the contribution of scientists to an understanding of motion and forces; for example, Ptolemy, Aristotle, Copernicus, Galileo and Newton. Identify how prior knowledge contributed to the development of new understanding; explain how new evidence was used to shape ideas about motion and forces.
Detailed example
Experiment: What factors affect the motion of a golf ball rolling down an inclined plane?
Introduction
The key knowledge section
Newton’s laws of motion (pages 50 and 51 of the study design) lends itself particularly well to the design of an experiment. Students may be familiar with the use of relevant equipment and the concepts are accessible for students’ independent practical design. One aim of the task may be to hone experimental skills in readiness for the Practical Investigation for Unit 4 Area of Study 3. This task may also be used as the basis of a coupled inquiry for the Unit 4 Area of Study 3 student investigation.
Method
- Teacher rolls a golf ball down an inclined plane at various angles and demonstrates various methods for measuring time versus angle and / or time versus distance.
- Teacher demonstrates the use of a light gate at the bottom of the ramp to measure final velocity.
- Students verify that as the angle increases so too does the velocity.
- Different brands and types of golf balls are then compared and students are posed the question, ‘Why don’t all golf balls behave the same way?’
- Students are provided with a range of different brands and types of golf balls and are guided in developing suitable hypotheses for investigation. Factors that may be investigated include: golf ball construction (2-piece, 3-piece, 4-piece); hardness (long, soft, very soft, etc.); and the number of dimples.
- Data is generated, recorded in logbooks and collated for the class.
- Students analyse data individually and then discuss as a class, explaining how variables were controlled, identifying errors and uncertainties in measurements, including appropriate graphical representations, drawing and justifying conclusions and suggesting ways of improving the experimental designs that were used.
Notes:
- This task may be used to provide formative feedback to students in preparation for Unit 4 Outcome 3.
- Teacher may choose to complete the Unit 4 Outcome 2 assessment task at this time, as a coupled investigation.
Outcome 2
On completion of this unit the student should be able to analyse gravitational, electric and magnetic fields, and apply these to explain the operation of motors and particle accelerators, and the orbits of satellites.
Examples of learning activities
Key knowledge: Fields and interactions
- Literature review: Construct a table or infographic that outlines the similarities and differences between the three types of fields (gravitational, magnetic and electric); compare the magnitudes of the forces due to gravity, electrical forces and magnetic forces.
- Experiment: Use iron filings and / or small compasses to investigate and report on the shape of magnetic fields surrounding permanent magnets, current-carrying conductors and solenoids.
- Experiment: Design and perform experiments to investigate:
- the relationship between magnetic field strength and temperature
- the magnetic field strength of a solenoid
- factors that influence the performance of electromagnets; for example, shape of the electromagnet coil, diameter, length of coil, electric current.
- Case study: Present an account of Michael Faraday’s 1821 invention of the ‘homopolar motor’. Discuss why some people have described it as the world’s simplest motor.
- Product, process or system development: Construct a
homopolar motor.
- Experiment: Investigate how the shape of an electromagnet affects its performance; for example, compare a short coil with many turns of wire with a long coil (a solenoid) with the same number of turns.
- Experiment: Investigate how the diameter of an electromagnetic coil affects the strength of the magnetic field and / or the electric current.
- Literature review: Discuss how international collaboration has been involved in the discovery of gravity waves and associated technologies; for example, the Laser Interferometer Gravitational-Wave Observatory (LIGO).
Key knowledge: Effects of fields
- Explore the gravitational and magnetic fields around Earth.
- Simulation: Explore the nature of electric fields using simulations (for example:
Charges and Fields by PhET and
Electric Field Hockey by PhET).
- Case study: Research and explain the motion of the oil drop, due to gravitational and magnetic fields, in Millikan’s experiment.
- Estimate the gravitational attraction between different objects.
- Experiment: Investigate the force acting on a conductor in a magnetic field.
- Experiment: Demonstrate and seek explanations of the motion of a magnet falling in a long metal cylinder.
- Experiment: Investigate the motion of a coin when it is placed vertically on a magnet, then slightly inclined relative to the magnet and released.
- Product, process or system development: Design and construct a device based on a compass needle that can be used to measure Earth’s magnetic field.
Key knowledge: Application of field concepts
Detailed example
Explanation of the operation of a device
Introduction
Students work individually to research and explain the operation of an electromagnetic device. Teachers may initially provide students with a simple electromagnetic device, such as a door bell or a handheld cooling fan, which is dissected and evaluated as a class. Students may then be allocated (for example by ballot) a nominated device or may undertake research to nominate a device of choice that no other student has previously selected. Examples of appropriate devices for investigation include: defibrillator; ECG; MRI; Maglev train; loudspeaker; microphone; mass spectrometer; voltmeter; ammeter; electron microscope; photocopier; Kelvin water dropper; Wien filter; junkyard electromagnet; dust precipitator; space elevator; three-stage rocket; electric eel; fusion reactor; linac; and particle accelerator.
The task involves students responding to the questions: What does the device do? How does the device work? The teacher should determine the format of the response (for example, oral presentation, brochure, set of PowerPoint sides), including whether students have a choice of presentation mode. Student responses should include reference to electromagnetism principles that can be understood by their peers. The task may involve physical disassembly of the device, if practicable.
Health and safety
Students should be advised of safety issues related to the handling of electromagnetic devices.
Task process
- Students confirm the device they will investigate with the teacher, including identification of any health and / or safety issues.
- Format and nature of the expected final presentation should be agreed.
- Students may initially be provided with time to complete the task outside of class time.
- Logbooks should be used by students to document research information including date and time of access, details of the source such as website or reference / acknowledgment, authority of the source and key points or information from the source that will be used in the final presentation.
- Students prepare their final response in class (one lesson) including specific reference to the relevant electromagnetism concepts, including energy transformations and the role of an electromagnet in an electric motor.
- In the next lesson, students pair up to compare two different devices; each student explains the working of their device to the other student in the pair. Students should provide constructive feedback regarding the clarity of each other’s explanations of the device. Students construct a table to summarise the similarities and differences in the working of their selected electromagnetic devices.
Teacher notes
- Visual presentations (such as an annotated model or a limited set of PowerPoint slides) can be presented to a wider audience (such as peer groups at school assemblies, parent–teacher nights or community events) with students being available to explain their presentation.
- If students are organised into pairs to investigate a device, they may undertake their own research and prepare their own presentations. After each presentation, students may provide feedback about the accuracy of the information and clarity of the presentation. Presentations may then be refined if being presented to a wider audience such as at a school assembly or a parent-teacher night.
- Students may reflect on famous quotes about presentations; for example, Albert Einstein’s quote that, ‘If you can’t explain it simply, you don’t understand it well enough’, Philip Crosby’s quote that ‘No-one can remember more than three points’ and Jeff Dewar’s quote, ‘Ask yourself, “If I had only sixty seconds on the stage, what would I absolutely have to say to get my message across?”’
- If this task is to be used as an assessment task, modifications will need to be made at various stages to ensure authenticity of the task; for example, consideration of amount of time out of class allowed for research, designated work in class, no peer or teacher feedback during the task, collection of logbooks, consistency of expected presentation format for the class, development of appropriate assessment rubric to be distributed to students prior to the task.
Outcome 3
On completion of this unit the student should be able to analyse and evaluate an electricity generation and distribution system.
Examples of learning activities
Key knowledge: Generation of electricity
- Simulation: Explore the operation of generators using online simulations and animations (for example:
Generators and
Alternators from UNSW).
- Experiment: Determine the flux through a variety of examples at stations in the laboratory.
- Experiment: Perform an experiment related to the identification of flux change and the determination of magnitude and direction of emf produced.
- Classification and identification: Compare the power produced by a DC voltage with that produced by an AC peak voltage of the same, twice and √2 times the DC voltage.
- Experiment: Investigate the induction of an electric current using a magnet and coil.
- Experiment: Investigate the induced emf from an AC generator.
- Use Lenz’s Law to predict the direction of an induced current when a magnetic field is produced inside a solenoid (either with a permanent magnet or another solenoid).
- Literature review: Apply the concept of induction; explore the use of electric fields in microphones; explain how speakers work.
- Product, process or system development: Select an electrogenic (able to generate an electric field) organism such as an electric eel to design a solution that harnesses the electric field to generate electricity.
Key knowledge: Transmission of electricity
- Determine the change in efficiency of a power supply system if the resistance of the wires is doubled
- Experiment: Investigate the performance of a transformer.
- Deconstruct an old computer transformer and investigate its function.
- Literature review: Research the different types of AC generation power plants and prepare a summary report.
- Literature review: Read the article at
Renew Economy and evaluate energy transmission proposals and projects, for example:
- the Australia-Asia Power Link
- the Marinus Link.
- Experiment: Analyse a low-voltage model of a transmission system.
- Product, process or system development: Design a power supply system given a set of design parameters.
- Modelling: Use a spreadsheet to explore modifications to the operation of an energy supply system.
-
Literature review: Investigate an issue related to electricity transmission. (see Detailed example)
-
Fieldwork: Interview a representative sample of the public to gauge their views and / or position on an issue related to electricity transmission and to identify any misconceptions that exist in the general population related to concepts involving electromagnetism and the transmission of electricity. (see Detailed example)
- Case study: Access
case studies related to possible health effects on humans living near power lines, and
energy networks; identify the physics concepts and claims discussed in the case study; choose one physics-based claim and develop a method to test the claim. What data would be required to draw a conclusion? What is the sample size for the proposed method? Could the conclusions be generalised to a wider population?
Detailed example
Investigation of an issue related to electricity transmission
Introduction
Students may work individually or in small groups to research, discuss and present a justified response to an issue of interest related to the transmission of electricity. Teachers may initially provide students with a relevant article for students to discuss in class; for example, the fact sheet ‘Electricity and health’ or the article Effects of High Voltage Transmission Lines on Humans and Plants or the reported study
Kangaroo Island’s choice: a new cable to the mainland, or renewable power. Students should then access and evaluate a media article of interest.
Task process
- Teachers model an analysis of a media article with the class.
- Students use the internet to access a media item of interest, identifying the physics concepts that will be discussed.
- Teachers should confirm that the articles selected by students are appropriate for evaluation.
- The format and nature of the expected final presentation should be agreed.
Student questions
A series of questions may guide students in constructing their responses:
- Who is the author and are they qualified to write about the issue?
- Is author bias identifiable in the article?
- Are there any conflicts of interest regarding disclosures about the author’s funding sources or place of employment?
- What are the major points made by the author?
- Are the scientific ideas correct?
- Are the scientific ideas used correctly?
- What evidence is cited by the author to back up claims?
- Does the evidence come from a reputable source?
- Are the arguments relevant and valid?
- What is your view? Does it differ from the views of others in your group?
Extension
Fieldwork: Students may interview a representative sample of the public to gauge their views and / or position on the issue and to identify any misconceptions that exist in the general population related to concepts involving electromagnetism and the transmission of electricity.
Teacher notes
- Selected media articles should include sufficient physics ideas or provide scope for questions related to specific physics concepts to be developed, to enable appropriate evaluation by students.
- Some articles are supplemented by an interchange of comments from readers; these often provide a good source of comments that may be analysed for scientific accuracy and logic.
- This task can be adapted as an assessment task with teachers choosing one media article for students to individually evaluate.
Unit 4: How have creative ideas and investigation revolutionised thinking in physics?
Outcome 1
On completion of this unit the student should be able to analyse and apply models that explain the nature of light and matter, and use special relativity to explain observations made when objects are moving at speeds approaching the speed of light.
Examples of learning activities
Key knowledge: Light as a wave
- Literature review: Research and explain applications of standing waves.
- Experiment: Investigate experimentally the change of an interference pattern as the light is modified in terms of wavelength, intensity, distance from slits, coherence.
- Experiment: Observe and describe the diffraction and interference effects as light passes through narrow single and double slits; vary the colour of the light using red and blue filters, and experiment with single and double slit slides of various sizes.
- Experiment: Explore interference patterns produced by shining a laser pointer onto a thin wire (for example:
Interference Experiments from UNSW).
Video
- Experiment: Investigate the interference pattern on a screen using a diffraction grating or by reflecting laser light on the surface of a CD or DVD (e.g.
Diffraction Gratings Lab from UNSW.)
- Simulation: Explore the nature of diffraction and interference using online video clips and interactive resources (for example:
Phys Clips Interference from UNSW,
Phys Clips Diffraction from UNSW and
Double Slit Interference by Walter Fendt).
Key knowledge: Light as a particle
- Experiment: Conduct a practical activity on the photoelectric effect using standard equipment and filters.
- Simulation: Investigate the photoelectric effect:
- explore the effect of changing the frequency and intensity of the incident light on the energy of the ejected electrons (for example:
Photoelectric Effect by PhET or
Photoelectric Effect by Walter Fendt)
- explore the
photoelectric effect
- compare data such as the photoelectron energy or velocity, or electrical potential difference across the anode, with the wavelength or frequency of incident light; calculate Planck’s constant from the simulation data.
- Modelling: Use data of retarding voltage and frequency for a selection of metals to explore the photoelectric effect; graph using paper or a spreadsheet.
- Literature review: Report on an innovation that uses the photoelectric effect; for example, solar cells, photocells, photomultiplier tubes, and the production of soundtracks on movie films.
- Classification and identification: Compare both emission and absorption spectra for selected elements.
- Literature review: Research and report on the use of spectra in the identification and investigation of bodies in the night sky.
Key knowledge: Light as a particle
- Experiment: Investigate the wave nature of light with reference to interference and diffraction.
Key knowledge: Light as a particle
Key knowledge: Einstein’s special theory of relativity
- Explain the limitations of using Newton’s laws of motion at very high speeds.
- Simulation: Use interactive resources to explore the nature of space and time in special relativity (for example: Physlet Quantum Physics Time Dilation and Length Contraction in Special Relativity; or
Time Dilation App from Walter Fendt).
- Investigate different frames of reference:
- watch a visualisation to introduce the concept of
simultaneity: summarise the main points
- discuss the motion of a ball being thrown vertically inside a moving train from the perspective of a stationary person on the train, compared with what an observer standing on the ground would see
- discuss the motion of a projectile moving with the same horizontal speed as a moving vehicle (relative to the ground) and compare what is seen by someone standing on the ground and someone sitting in the moving vehicle.
- Investigate Einstein’s theories using everyday examples and compare the findings to Newtonian mechanics.
- Watch ‘Why can’t you go faster than light?’ and explain why it is impossible for an object to travel faster than light.
- Use graphical representations of the motion of Mars to demonstrate and explain its retrograde motion to show different frames of reference.
- Simulation: Access online simulations, worksheets and quizzes related to the train thought experiment to explore Einstein’s special theory of relativity.
- Classification and identification: Discuss when it is more appropriate to use Newton’s laws of motion and when to use Einstein’s theories.
- Literature review: Research and summarise how special relativistic effects can be applied to explain the operation of the
Global Positioning System (GPS), and
Real-World Relativity (note that the effects of general relativity are beyond the scope of VCE Physics).
- Literature review: Explain how satellites provide experimental evidence that supports the phenomenon of time dilation.
- Literature review: Work in groups to investigate how Einstein’s second postulate for his special theory of relativity is supported by evidence from a number of sources; for example, X-rays from binary star systems and other experiments on moving gamma radiation sources.
- Literature review: Research and explain the time dilation effects that have been measured experimentally with atomic caesium clocks.
- Literature review: Allocate students an identified misconception related to special relativity to unpack and correct; for example, ideas that ‘time is absolute’, ‘length, mass and time changes are just apparent’, ‘length and time only change for one observer’, ‘time dilation refers to two clocks in two different frames’, ‘a mass moving at the speed of light becomes energy’ and ‘mass is absolute, that is, it has the same value in all reference frames’.
- Literature review: Allocate students into groups to research and explain to other groups how Einstein’s work on special relativity built upon the ideas and research of other physicists; for example, James Maxwell and Hendrik Lorentz.
- Experiment: Use a video camera to photograph motion from different frames of reference; for example, record the motion of a person walking in a straight line while throwing a ball in the air from a stationary camera and from a moving camera, or record motion as you are rotating in the centre of a table; explore Newton’s writing on the concepts of absolute space and time and relate the video recordings to his writings.
- Case study: Discuss how the Michelson-Morley experiment with light disproved the previously held luminiferous aether theory.
- Modelling: Use mathematical modelling to examine the way in which the correction factor g = 1 / (1 – v2 / c2)½ changes with speed; discuss the implications of the correction factor g = 1 / (1 – v2 / c2)½ approaching infinity at the speed of light, including that the apparent mass of an object must also approach infinity; examine the experimental evidence that time runs more slowly for fast-moving objects.
- Case study: Discuss the discovery of the muon by Carl Anderson and Seth Neddermeyer in 1936. How did the discovery challenge previously understood ideas about particles?
Key knowledge: Relationship between energy and mass
- Simulation: Use interactive resources to explore mass and energy equivalence (for example:
Physlet Quantum Physics.)
- Organise students into groups of four to work together to create a set of four or eight ‘Who has? … I have’ double-sided cards related to images and descriptions of physics concepts; for example, characteristics of light and matter or ways our understanding of the physical world has changed. Each card has one face with a ‘Who has…?’ description of a concept, and the other face of the card has an image that corresponds to another student’s card’s ‘Who has…?’ description. Combine cards from the class to play the game, and deal each student with one or two cards. One student begins the game by asking their ‘Who has…?’ question. The student with the correct answer says, ‘I have!’ and then asks the ‘Who has…?’ question that is on their card. Students continue this question-and-answer pattern until all cards have been used.
Detailed example
Construction of a Venn diagram to summarise the similarities and differences between light and matter, and the use of the wave and particle models to explain light and matter
Stage 1
Students are provided with various learning experiences that allow them to develop ideas about light and matter, and evidence that suggests whether the wave model or the particle model should be used to explain them. Observations, evaluations and conclusions drawn from these learning activities are recorded in student logbooks.
Stage 2
At the conclusion of the learning experiences students are provided with a template of a Venn Diagram, such as the one shown below. Students may use logbooks to complete the Venn Diagram.
Diagram 2
Image description
Students are guided in the skills to efficiently demonstrate knowledge using a Venn diagram.
The following instructions may be helpful:
- Keep points clear and concise – the use of relationships is appropriate.
- Make use of ‘bubbles’ in the margins to provide evidence in the form of experiments.
- Use colour to emphasise whether an item is a point or a justification.
- Provide justifications wherever possible.
- Use capital letters to emphasise more important points.
- Use colour coding to emphasise level of importance of points.
- Use appropriate symbols and conventions.
- Teacher may include a number of guiding questions to probe evaluation of the models to explain light and matter.
Outcome 2
On completion of this unit the student should be able to design and conduct a scientific investigation related to fields, motion or light, and present an aim, methodology and method, results, discussion and a conclusion in a scientific poster.
Examples of learning activities
Key knowledge: Investigation design
- Compare class observations of a single physics phenomenon or object and discuss why careful observation is important in scientific investigations. Comment on the quote from German poet and dramatist Johann Wolfgang von Goethe (1749–1832): ‘We see only what we know.’
- Design an experiment to investigate a property of a common household item; for example a child’s toy, a rubber band, a super ball. Identify and distinguish between sources of error and uncertainty; use the results to discuss the difference between reproducibility and reliability; calculate the mean; discuss how the mean would be similar / different if the activity was undertaken by a different class. Explain why accurate measurements are important in physics.
- Determine the maximum precision of length measurement with a steel ruler; discuss the significance of precision in measurements of physical phenomena; use examples to illustrate the effect of variable precision when using motion formulas to calculate an unknown quantity.
- Discuss the following quote by Edward Teller: ‘A fact is a simple statement that everyone believes. It is innocent, unless found guilty. A hypothesis is a novel suggestion that no one wants to believe. It is guilty, until found effective’ (E. Teller, 1991,
Conversations on the Dark Secrets of Physics, Plenum Press, New York).
Key knowledge: Scientific evidence
- Comment, in terms of the nature of science, on Bill Gaede’s quote that ‘Science is not about making predictions or performing experiments. Science is about explaining.’
- Discuss whether there is a role for ‘guessing’ in physics experimentation and research.
Key knowledge: Science communication
- Comment, in terms of the importance of scientific communication, on Anthony Hewish’s quote that: ‘I believe scientists have a duty to share the excitement and pleasure of their work with the general public, and I enjoy the challenge of presenting difficult ideas in an understandable way.’
- Debate the topic: ‘It is more important, in presentations, to impress rather than to inform’.
- Download and print prepared scientific posters (for example, from the
University of Texas website) and work in groups using a provided set of criteria to evaluate investigation aims, methodologies, data presentation, conclusions and effectiveness of scientific communication for each poster.
- Organise small-group discussions in class to identify the strengths, weaknesses and areas for improvement of a range of scientific posters; for example, those found at University of Texas website. Collate and reflect on class results and provided online evaluations to develop a set of ‘do’s and don’ts’ for constructing a
scientific poster.
Examples of research topics
The following topics are a sample of student-designed practical investigations that may be considered. Students may use different scientific methodologies to investigate a continuous independent variable and to generate primary data. In particular, experiments, fieldwork, modelling, and product, process or system development are the most appropriate methodologies for this area of study. Simulations may be used in situations where students do not have access to appropriate laboratory equipment and where students are able to manipulate variables to generate a unique data set, but teachers must subsequently determine how students’ ability to design an investigation will be assessed for this outcome. The
International Young Physicists Tournament has interesting challenges and problems that can be adapted to the student investigation for this area of study. The
Senior Physics Resources website contains ideas and instructions for senior student research projects in physics; teachers should determine the appropriateness of the investigations in terms of resources and safety.
Experiments
- Develop a hypothesis and then design and perform an experiment to answer a question related to projectile motion, for example:
- How does angle affect the range of a projectile?
- How does the shape of a projectile affect the range of the projectile?
- How much of an effect does air resistance have on the height of a projectile?
- How much of an effect does air resistance have on the range of a projectile?
- Investigate the motion of a balloon or a parachute.
- Determine the ‘sweet spot’ of a tennis racquet.
- Investigate the relationship between the radius and the period of a body in circular motion.
- Determine how fast a bearing needs to be travelling to make it over a vertical loop.
- Investigate the strength of the force produced by a solenoid.
- Determine the efficiency of a phone transformer.
- Access a
triboelectric series and investigate how the order of selected items may change depending on varying environmental factors; for example, the presence of moisture or contaminants such as oil or dirt.
- Determine from what height a coin with heads-up should be dropped so that the probability of landing with a heads-up or a tails-up is equal.
- Investigate how the friction force depends on speed by considering the rolling of a wood puck on the wooden surface of a table.
- Investigate the relationship between the shape of the solidified droplets and the altitude of their fall after observing different solidified shapes (for example, ‘banana’, ‘boat’, ‘inkblot’) when molten paraffin is made to drip from a candle into a dish with water.
- Investigate the behaviour of a pendulum where the bob is connected to a spring or elastic cord rather than a solid rod.
- Investigate the attenuation coefficient (how easily a fluid, such as water, can be penetrated by a beam of light, sound, particles or other energy or matter) of various solutions of milky water (using pure water as a control and then beginning with a weak suspension of a few drops of milk in 500 mL of water).
- Investigate the parameters of a piece of transparent polyethylene film that result in the phenomenon that if printed text is covered with a piece of the film then the print can easily be read but as the film is gradually lifted up the text becomes increasingly blurred and may disappear.
- Investigate how the width of a slit affects the interference pattern.
- Investigate the relationship between incident light frequency and the kinetic energy of photoelectrons.
- Magnetise a nail by rubbing it with a magnet and investigate the effect of temperature on magnetic field strength.
Product, process or system development:
- Construct an aeroplane from a sheet of A4 paper and determine its maximum flight distance and / or time in the air; explain why it is not possible to reach a greater distance and / or longer flight time.
- Build a car using styrofoam meat trays, balloons and straws and investigate the effect of balloon size on the distance the car travels.
- A simple hand helicopter can be made by attaching rotor blades to one end of a vertical stick. The helicopter moves upwards when the stick is twisted at a high enough speed and then let go. What parameters affect the lift-off and the maximum height?
- Design, construct and evaluate a device that is able to separate at least ten particles with varying properties based on the construction of a ‘separating machine’ that utilises gravitational, magnetic and electric fields (the first step in the process should involve passing the particles through a ‘rubbing machine’ so that they acquire a small charge due to the triboelectric effect, a phenomenon where certain materials become electrically charged after they come into frictional contact with another material that has a different electronegativity [electron attracting power]).
Modelling
- Investigate the relationship between the thickness of a crumple zone and the elasticity of a collision. Explain how this investigation can be used to model crumple zones in cars.
- Investigate the concept of ‘magnetic suspension’; design, construct and evaluate a model that illustrates how it may be possible in the future to utilise ‘magnetic suspension’ for the operation of high-speed trains.
- Devise an inquiry to test the statement that ‘if you are sinking in soft mud, you should not move vigorously to try to get out’.
Modelling
Detailed example
How do environmental factors affect the flight of a projectile?
Students are expected to design and undertake an investigation involving one continuous independent variable. Students may select a topic related to content in Unit 3 and / or Unit 4. All primary and secondary research, observations and results must be recorded in the student’s logbook The report of the investigation is to take the form of a scientific poster.
Teachers must consider the management logistics of the investigation, taking into account the number of students, available resources and student interest. The following questions require consideration:
- How much freedom will students have in selecting the area of investigation?
- Will the teacher provide a guiding question from which the student needs to design a specific investigation?
- Can some of the investigation be conducted in a group?
- To what extent will all students consider the same investigation question, or complete different parts of the same question, so that class data can be pooled?
- How much guidance will the students require in designing their experiment?
- Will off-school site work / fieldwork be involved?
Teachers could provide students with a template that structures the investigation into a series of timed phases. Students may subsequently adapt the template as a personal work plan in their logbooks.
Investigation exploration phase
Topics for investigation may readily be developed as a ‘coupled investigation’, generated following a prior investigation undertaken in class. For example, as part of Unit 3 Area of Study 3, students are required to ‘design an experiment that investigates the effect of launch angle on the range of a projectile’. A focus of the activity was to hone students’ skills related to conducting controlled experiments, partly as a preparatory exercise for Unit 4 Outcome 3. In this detailed example, the teacher used a ‘coupled investigation’ approach by providing a guiding question from which students generated their own investigations. The guiding question, ‘How does the environment affect the flight of a projectile?’ enabled students to design investigations that considered how factors such as wind, humidity, dust or temperature affected the height and range of a projectile.
The teacher should provide feedback on topic selection and each student’s question and hypothesis in the early stages of the process to ensure that the student’s work is realistically completed in the time available and that the student has access to assessment performance descriptors.
The teacher may choose to assess the question under investigation and the hypothesis at this early stage.
Planning phase
Students may need guidance in:
- fitting the investigation into the time available, and developing a work plan
- identifying the technical skills involved in the investigation
- ensuring that resources are available that meet the requirements of the investigation.
Teachers should work with students to:
- provide examples of investigations involving two continuous independent variables
- determine to what extent students will work independently or in groups
- discuss the independent, dependent and controlled variables in proposed experiments
- identify safety aspects associated with undertaking experiments
- establish the use of physical units of measurement and standard notation, and how to reference sources and provide appropriate acknowledgments.
The teacher may decide to allow research informing the introduction and the methodology to take place outside of class. Variable identification and data collection and evaluation should take place under the supervision of the teacher. The teacher may like to record ongoing assessment and then make formative comments that students can adopt in their work to ensure that any errors are corrected and to ensure that students have full access to completing the investigation that enables generation of primary data.
Investigation phase
Prior to students undertaking practical investigations, the teacher must approve student-designed methodologies and/or methods. A possible schedule for management of the multiple investigations in the class is as follows:
- each student undertakes internet research to find background information related to the general topic for investigation
- students work individually or in groups to confirm a research question, formulate a hypothesis and propose a research methodology and / or method, including management of relevant safety and health issues
- students perform investigations, and record results in their logbooks.
Students may set up data tables in their logbooks prior to data generation during the investigation.
Processing phase
Students analyse and evaluate their investigation data in order to draw valid, evidence-based conclusions. Depending on the data generated, this may involve:
- graphing data
- using mathematical formulae and relationships
- converting between units
- using scientific notation
- determining significant figures
- considering accuracy, precision, repeatability, reproducibility, resolution, errors and uncertainty.
Reporting phase
Students consider the data generated, report on any errors or problems encountered, and use evidence to explain and answer the investigation question. A variety of representations may have been used in the processing phase of the investigation; students should determine which of these should be used in succinctly presenting their findings. Other avenues for further investigation may be suggested following evaluation of their experimental design and quality of data.
The above phases are to be recorded in the student logbook. The report of the investigation must be in the form of a scientific poster. The poster sections could be completed and assessed progressively. Teachers may use the VCAA template (see the Scientific Poster pages in the study design for poster templates and a summary of the poster sections). Further advice about scientific posters can be accessed at
Scientific posters in the Support materials. Cost-free templates that are aligned to the VCAA template are also readily available online.