Teaching and learning

Outcome 1

On completion of this unit the student should be able to explain and compare cellular structure and function and analyse the cell cycle and cell growth, death and differentiation.

Examples of learning activities

• Explore with students wether they know if something is living or not through looking at illustrated cards. This activity generates discussion of what makes something living. Teach Genetics.
  
• Create a series of Venn diagrams to represent similarities and differences between the following: prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells; plant and animal cells; diseased and non-diseased cells.
  
• Investigate the structure of a variety of different cell types and record observations (draw or photograph and label) in a logbook relating to the structure and function of cells and their organelles. View cells online (GTAC) or take virtual cell tours (xvivo cellscape). Devise imagined dialogue between organelles to highlight their functions.
• Prepare a range of wet mount slides for living plant and animal cells and produce an infographic 'Top 5 Handy Hints for Preparing Wet Slides' that includes relevant images of the slides and descriptions of the processes required to generate wet mounts.
• Conduct a controlled experiment to investigate the relationship between surface area and volume using agar cell diffusion (Exploratorium) and apply findings to explain how cell size and the need for organelles meets specific cellular functions.
• Construct models of a chloroplast and mitochondrion. Compare, contrast and discuss their structures and functions using a Venn diagram, t-chart or another graphic organiser. Link structures to functions. Extend this by comparing how these organelles are similar to a prokaryotic cell to explain their bacterial origins and endosymbiosis.
  
• Perform a demonstration using soap that simulates the fluid nature of the plasma membrane. Extend this activity by trying to pass objects through a can or PVC pipe inserted through the soap film to demonstrate the lipid and protein nature of the plasma membrane (Exploratorium)
  
• Conduct a controlled experiment that explores the semi-permeability of an artificial membrane to different substances including water, starch, protein and glucose via diffusion and osmosis.
• Plan and conduct a controlled experiment to compare the efficiency of diffusion through artificial membranes compared with natural (for example, egg, red onion, beetroot) membranes (Exploratorium, Practical Biology). Create a slowmation to model the movement of molecules through membranes.
  
• Use dialysis tubing and varying solutions and concentrations of salt and/or sugar (or starch and glucose) to plan and conduct an investigation into diffusion and osmosis. Generate, collate and record primary data. Analyse data to interpret results.
  
• Perform a demonstration using soap that simulates the fluid nature of the plasma membrane. Extand this activity by trying to pass objects through a can or PVC pipe inserted through the soap film to demonstrate ths lipid and protein nature of the plasma membrane (Exploratorium)
  
• Construct a three-dimensional model to represent the fluid-mosaic model for the structure of a plasma membrane (build a membrane Teach.Genetics); model the movement of water, hydrophilic and hydrophobic substances across the plasma membrane.
• Conduct first-hand observations in a garlic root tip preparation to identify stages of the mitotic cell cycle, including cytokinesis and investigate the time and location of most active cell division. Identify and describe the mitotic phases in the cell cycle using fluorescent images in cells online (GTAC). Compare and contrast the images with first-hand observations.
• Use prepared slides and capture digital images to examine the cell types that make up one specific organ, then compare similarities and differences in a jigsaw 'I'll show you my cells if you show me your cells' activity.
• Discuss the importance of observation and hypothesis formulation in scientific endeavour after considering the following quotation from author and journalist Allen Steele: 'Look … first and foremost, I'm a scientist. That means it's my responsibility to make observations and gather evidence before forming a hypothesis, not vice versa'.
  
• Convert the following research questions into testable hypotheses, including an explanation of how variables are controlled, and develop a proposed experimental method for one of the hypotheses:
  
  • Are the cell walls of evergreen plants different from the cell walls of deciduous plants?
  • Is a change in temperature related to deciduous leaves changing colour?
  • Do grasses have different chlorophyll pigments to trees?
  • Are leaf stomata of plants in different environments the same?
    
  • Is there a correlation betweeen the orientation of a leaf on a tree and ambient air temperature OR amount of stored food OR growth of potato buds?
    
• Investigate the need for chlorophyll and/or light and/or carbon dioxide for photosynthesis in variegated leaves. Identify limitations in data and methods and suggest improvements. Experimental Resources at CIE IGSCE Biology OR Royal Society of Biology.
  
• Considering bacteria as an example of a prokaryotic cell, model binary fission as cell reproduction, using plasticine, informed by bacterial growth online video footage at BioInteractive. Heating emu bush produces compounds that are bactericidal. Use the model to suggest how the emu bush compound may stop bacteria from replicating. More information can be found at The Conversation.
  
• Create a matrix to compare the similarities and differences between mitosis in eukaryotic cells and binary fission in prokaryotic cells, highlighting and explaining reasoning for similarities and differences. Compare matrices and challenge reasoning between peers, individually or collaboratively.
• Draw or model images of mitosis, identify and describe the key stages, using biological terminology, including cytokinesis. Map the key stages against the cell cycle. Compare drawings with peers and interactive animations (BioInteractive) to highlight and discuss misconceptions, note the misconceptions and new learning.
  
• Improve students data analysis skills by looking at graph demonstrating the role of p53 in the cell cycle when cells are exposed to gamma-radiation (BioInteractive) to highlight and discuss misconceptions, note the misconceptions and new learning.
  
• Draw a simple flowchart to summarise the process of apoptosis(WEHI), including malfunctions that may result in deviant cell behaviour, such as cancer, and the impact of the anti-cancer drug venetoclax on apoptosis (WEHI). Use the imagery and discussion with peers to modify the flow chart, documenting changes. Analyse how animations assist in organising and understanding concepts related to biology.
  
• Breast cancer may result from malfunctioning stem cells (WEHI animation – 'The origin of breast cancer and the link to stem cells'). Use this animation and other resources (outlined below) to create a mind map, flow chart, graphic organiser or cartoon to highlight the properties of stem cells that allow for differentiation, specialisation and renewal of cells and tissues, including the concepts of pluripotency and totipotency and the decoding of 'potent' lingo. Share and discuss these mind maps in groups of two or three, rotating around the room, modifying individual mind maps using evidence-based decisions and noting changes after conversation-based learning.
  Useful resources include: Stem Cells Australia (Stem Cell teacher's kit available for free download) WEHI (animations) Contemporary VCE Biology (Stem cells unit – understanding and investigation), Stem Cell Foundation, Stem Cell Network.
• View media articles and podcasts on stem cell therapy dilemmas (ABC) or similar topical pieces (Stem Cell Foundation). Participate in a Socratic circle to discuss stem cell science and stakeholder views to elicit beliefs and misconceptions. The emphasis is to highlight the issues and students' knowledge and understanding of the science of stem cells.
• Use a graffiti group task to discuss the bioethics of stem cell therapy. Working in small groups and using A3 or butcher's paper, write the name of one stakeholder in stem cell therapy and consider their viewpoint(s) (using scientific and/or media texts). Ensure a range of stakeholders is identified among the groups. Write all the words, phrases or draw diagrams that come to mind about that viewpoint. Use different coloured felt pens to track each student's contribution. After a set period of time, students move to the next table and repeat the activity. After students have completed all pages, the original group summarises their viewpoint. Each group uses one or more ethical approaches and concepts (pages 16 and 17) to consider each stakeholder perspective and collates the information. Students consider their own position and suggested course of action, based on the class data, discussion and scientific evidence, reasoning and reflection. Debrief and reflect on this experience: what has been learnt from other stakeholder perspectives and what has changed in their own opinion?
  
• Produce a poster that explains the types of stem cells and their potential use in medical therapies.
• In terms of apoptosis, discuss the following statements. Provide factual and reasoned responses.
  
  • 'at the cellular level, death is essential for life'
  • cell deletion is apoptosis while cell addition is mitosis'
  • 'cancer is an imbalance between apoptosis and mitosis'
  • 'cancer can be considered in terms of the inactivation of apoptosis'
  • 'apoptosis is a process that brings about the elimination of individual cells for the wellbeing of the organism as a whole'.
• 
  Complete an investigation to model the characteristics of cancerous and non-cancerous cells using digital animation.
  

Detailed example

Modelling cancer cells

As adapted from 'Understanding cancer: how does cancer start and spread?'
Deakin University blogs

Aim

To model the characteristics of cancerous and non-cancerous cells using digital animation.

Key science skills

Identify, inform and teach students the relevant Unit 1–4 Biology key science skills that are embedded in the task.

Equipment

• Butchers paper, A3 paper, coloured paper
• Pencils, textas, coloured pencils, crayons
• Pipe cleaners
• Modelling clay
• Pop sticks, skewer sticks, polystyrene balls
• Glue sticks, sticky tape, elastic bands, White Tack, string

Procedure

1. Research and compare deaths caused by malignant skin melanoma in Australia (IHME Viz Hub) compared to the rest of the world. Suggest reasons why it is so high compared to other countries. Define key terms and discuss representation of data.
2. Research and compare cancerous (melanoma) and non-cancerous skin cells, focusing on similarities and differences in appearance; including size and shape, mitotic index, arrangement, nuclei shape. Consider deviant cell behaviour and where possible disruptions occurred in the cell cycle and apoptosis to result in cancer cells and link this to the development of cancerous cells.
3. Record findings in the logbook. Sketch drawings of cancerous and non-cancerous cells.
4. Model each type of cell using a range of equipment.
   
5. Compare and contrast models, noting similarities and differences, strengths and limitations of using models.
6. Use digital animation (e.g. slowmation) to model the change in cell characteristics from non-cancerous to cancerous. Include annotations, labels and narration (voice and/or text).
7. Create a digital story to describe the progression from healthy cells to cancerous cells in skin cancer. Animate this process, using 3D models and/or a white board and drawing to assist. Include where the cell cycle and apoptosis may have been disrupted to result in cancerous cells.
8. Use a storyboard template to construct the plan for how to represent the transitions. Include the visual representations, the narration, and the camera actions/effects. Include title slides and credits (including references).
9. Use STOP Motion (a free software program) downloaded to your device. Practise using the app based on the set-up, positioning the camera (retort stands, rulers, masking tape), taking the shot (don't move the iPad), watch the lighting (shadows), position the animations (tape things down), check the shot, plan the title and credits from the start (don't plan to insert later).
10. Narrate the video showing the progression of cell changes from normal to cancerous cells.
11. Showcase the animations. As a class, discuss and reflect on the ability of scientific models, such as their models of cancer cells, to organise and understand observed phenomena.
12. Reflect in the logbook on the strengths and limitations of using models and how and why scientists may use models in research.

Note: This activity could also be adapted to create a model of stem cells and their properties, such as AP Biology.

Extension activities:

• Why is cancer a health issue/biological problem and why all this research focus into cancers?
• Explain how cancer is an imbalance of homeostasis.
• What do Australian Government statistics tell us about the prevalence and incidence of certain cancers in Australia, by group and gender? How might this influence research, prevention strategies, treatment?
• How does cancer arise and spread?
• What are some treatments of cancers? How do they work?

Outcome 2

On completion of this unit the student should be able to explain and compare how cells are specialised and organised in plants and animals, and analyse how specific systems in plants and animals are regulated.

Examples of learning activities

• Compare class observations of a single biological phenomenon or object and discuss why careful observation is important in scientific investigations. Comment on the quote from Johann Wolfgang von Goethe (1749–1832) German poet, dramatist: 'We see only what we know'. 
  

• Develop a question, formulate hypotheses, plan and conduct an experiment to show how an environmental factor such as light intensity, temperature, air movement or humidity affects the transpiration rate of a vascular plant, using a potometer (STEM, Investigating eater transport in plants using a potometer). Generate, collate and record data; analyse and evaluate data and investigation methods and draw conclusions. Other good examples can be found at BioNinja or at Southern Biological.
  

• Explore Victoria's naturally-occurring vascular plant flora via the VicFlora portal. VicFlora is continually updated with new species discoveries, new weeds, new information and images.
• Use the HortFlora portal to investigate cultivated plants of south-eastern Australia.
• Use prepared slides to examine the cell types that make up one specific organ; compare similarities and differences in a jigsaw activity with other students who have investigated different organs.
• Use a microtome to section plant specimens for viewing under a microscope and compare the physiology of different species of leaves (stomata, chlorophyll distribution). Develop hypotheses and undertake investigations to determine whether there is a correlation between the location of a leaf on a tree and: the number of stomata or the distribution of chlorophyll.
• Capture an image of a first-hand dissection of a mammalian system. Annotate the image to name the functions of specific organs in the systems; specifically digestive, endocrine and excretory. Identify the system's relationship to another system, using a concept map.
  
• Use a proscope or digital microscope to investigate any one of the following questions: What is the effect of different levels of sunlight on the rate of opening and closing, and on maximum size opening, of stomata on leaves? Do young leaves have the same density and distribution as older leaves? Are the stomates on all plants the same size, shape and distribution?
• Case study: Australians looking overseas for transplants. Research using 'transplant tourism' media article, research letter and podcast (DonateLife, Kidney Health Australia, ABC, MJA). Work in groups, with rotation of groups, to consider the viewpoints of stakeholders and current Australian laws. Select one or more ethical approach and concept (pages 16 and 17) to explore the issue of transplant tourism. Consider your own position and suggested course of action, based on the collated class data, discussion and scientific evidence, reasoning and reflection. Debrief and reflect on this experience to consider what was learnt from other stakeholder perspectives and any changes made to opinions held.
• Identify and classify native plants, based on structures to maintain water balance, using fieldwork and field guides or online sources (Royal Botanic Gardens Victoria – towards sustainability; Australian National Botanic Gardens – Mallee plants).
• Use the stimulus–response model to show how thermoregulation occurs in humans by the control of heat exchange and metabolic activity through physiological and behavioural mechanisms.
  
• Study stem cell treatment for type 1 diabetes (Stem Cell Foundation). Draw or model and label images, creating a storyboard to describe how the treatment works, focusing on the properties of stem cells used to produce insulin from specialised cells. Design an imagined solution to treat type 1 diabetes. Compare and contrast ideas with peers. How do these imagined solutions link to other current research on type 1 diabetes? (Garvan).
• Compare the prevalence of type 1 diabetes worldwide with data up until 2019 (IHME Viz Hub). Use reasoning from data to draw and justify conclusions of the prevalence in Australia, currently and over time. Describe the limitations of conclusions, including identification of further evidence required. Compare this with diabetes prevlance around the world (2024) and future projections(Insujet)
  
• Consider the misconceptions about type 1 diabetes (ABC). Select one or more misconception and suggesting why people might have these misconceptions; then debunk the myths using relevant biological information. Develop questions for research and communicate findings for a specific audience.
• Consider how marine snail venom, which is made of a fast-acting insulin protein, might be used to treat diabetes (WEHI, ScienceDaily). Collaboratively consider and document plausible recommendations, based on biological understandings. Consider what is known and what needs to be researched. Compare Australia and / or selected worldwide data of incidence of type 1 diabetes. Evaluate data, draw and justify conclusions for finding treatments for diabetes (AIHW, IHME Viz Hub).
• Elicit prior knowledge by writing and / or drawing answers (predict) to posed questions regarding type 1 diabetes (knowledge of what it is, what causes it and how it is managed). Consider and discuss what tissues, organs and systems of the body are impacted; what malfunction is occurring; what causes blood glucose to change; how blood glucose is regulated in the body; what happens at a cellular level in people with diabetes and without diabetes. In groups, discuss the answers and view (observe) information and research type 1 diabetes (Diabetes Australia, Garvan, WEHI) to modify answers accordingly, using multimodal representations. Explain these answers, using biological terminology from the key knowledge.
• Evaluate a range of scientific and media texts (including audio) about Grave's Disease and hyperthyroidism (Thyroid Foundation) to provide background information, draw stimulus-response models, negative feedback loops and associated organ structures to demonstrate regulation of thyroid hormones. Modify the models and loops to demonstrate the impact of malfunctions of homeostasis. Using the models and loops, consider a home remedy for hyperthyroidism and use reasoning to draw and justify a conclusion regarding the use of the home remedy. This activity may be repeated for regulation of body temperature and water balance.
  

Detailed example

How can drought resistant crops be identified? Comparison and evaluation of biological concepts, methodologies and findings.

As adapted from 'Observing transpiration', 'Stomata leaf peel' and 'Preparing a leaf epidermal peel' (GRDC, GTAC).

Aim

Explore the concept of transpiration by creating a controlled environment by which this process can be monitored and measured (Part A).

Compare the epidermal cellular structures (such as stomata) from the leaves of different wheat varieties. Suggest which might be best for a low rainfall environment (Part B).

Key science skills

Identify, inform and teach students the relevant Unit 1–4 Biology Key science skills that are embedded in the task.

Introduction

Most wheat cropping in Australia relies on rainfall because there is no option for irrigation or it is too expensive for larger scale farms. Australian grain growers regularly check weather updates from the Bureau of Meteorology. Farmers need the rain to fall at the right time and in the right place. Unfortunately, due largely to climate change, Australian farming areas are being plagued by periods of low rainfall, hot weather, dry winds and drought. In these conditions, plants can struggle to grow, survive and reproduce.

Water movement throughout a plant is essential to its ability to grow, survive and reproduce. In a farming system, growers are keen for the plant to use every millimetre of water. From a scientific point of view, they want to offer farmers a variety that has the best adaptive traits possible. The CSIRO (ECOS) has found plants that, with adaptations, are higher yielding under drought conditions and better at maintaining growth. This is reflected in the fact that they keep their stomata open longer when stressed during flowering. Sensitive plants close those stomata quickly under stress and stop growing. Stomata control transpiration of water and photosynthesis and thereby regulate growth and grain production.

Transpiration is the process by which plants lose water. Plants collect water from the soil through their root hairs via a process of osmosis. The water then travels up through the plant to the leaves where it is lost as the water diffuses into the surrounding air.

On the outer layer of the leaf of a plant are microscopic holes called 'stomata'. Stomata control gas exchange and water loss by opening and closing. They are of particular interest to plant breeders because plants with smaller or fewer stomata tend to have lower levels of evaporation.

Part A: Investigating transpiration using a controlled experiment

Equipment

2 x clear measuring cylinders
Square of cardboard
Small cuttings of plant(s) (preferably crop plants – wheat, rye, corn, sunflower, beans, peas, radishes, lettuce, any other vegetable)
Blue Tack
Water
Scissors
Timer
Pen

Method

1. Make a hole in the centre of the cardboard big enough for the stem. Put the stem of the cutting through this hole and seal the remaining space with Blue Tack.
2. Fill one cup with water and mark the water level with a pen. Put the bottom of the cutting in the water and place the second cup over the top of the leaves of the plant.
3. Place in the sun and observe for 20 minutes.
4. Record your observations.

Discussion questions/suggested annotations when report writing in the logbook

A series of four to six graded questions that address the data and the implications of the relationship for cell survival should be set for students to answer in their logbook, for example:

Identify – What are the dependent, independent and controlled variables in your investigation?

Explain – What did you observe? What percentage of water was taken up by the plant? Explain the observations in terms of osmosis and transpiration.

Apply – Which plants would be recommended as crops? Support your claims with evidence.

Propose – What further tests could be performed to investigate transpiration rates in plants? Outline a method for a further test.

Part B: Investigating stomata using a controlled experiment

Investigate stomatal aperture from three different plant varieties.

Procedure
Stomata may be isolated and viewed under a light or digital microscope using a variety of methods, including using nail polish and sticky tape or peeling a thin epidermal layer from the leaf.

Results
Draw and label any points of stomata difference between the varieties and between the top and bottom of the leaf. Clearly label the stomata, guard cells and any other organelles you see.

Describe the stomatal aperture, describing the appearance of guard cells.

Explain why the lower epidermis of a leaf has more stomata than the upper epidermis.

Which variety had the most stomata?

Discussion questions/suggested annotations when report writing in the logbook

A series of four to six graded questions that address the data and the implications of the relationship for cell survival should be set for students to answer in their logbook, for example:

Identify – What are the dependent, independent and controlled variables in your investigation?

Explain – What did you observe? Describe the differences between plants, including number of stomata and number of open stomata. Explain the observations in terms of stomatal opening and guard cell appearance.

Apply – Which plants would be recommended as crops in drought conditions? Evidence your reasoning using your results from both Parts A and B.

Propose – What further tests could be performed to investigate stomatal aperture and opening rates in plants? Outline a method for a further test.

Extension

Compare Australian native plants (Mallee.pdf) and Australian crop plants with transpiration rates, stomata location and opening. Which would you suggest would be better suited as crop plants? Explain why. Identify and describe possible social, ethical and economic issues.

Outcome 3

On completion of this unit the student should be able to adapt or design and then conduct a scientific investigation related to function and/or regulation of cells or systems, and draw a conclusion based on evidence from generated primary data.

Examples of learning activities

• The following questions relate to a range of practical investigations that might be considered.
  
  • What is the effect of soil salinity on the germination of food crops?
  • Do particular plants repel insects such as cockroaches, flies, ants or beetles?
  • Are the cell walls of evergreen native plants different from the cell walls of deciduous exotic plants?
  • Is a change in temperature related to deciduous leaves changing colour?
  • Do grasses have different types of cell walls to leaves from trees?
  • Are the leaf stomata of plants in different environments the same?
  • Are the seeds from indigenous plants more resistant to fire than the seeds from introduced plant species?
  • Are the seeds from introduced species more resistant to frost than the seeds from indigenous plant species?
  • Do young leaves have the same density and distribution of stomata as older leaves?
• Perform practical activities that demonstrate the lipid and protein nature of the plasma membrane.
• Make predictions and conduct a practical activity related to the movement of a variety of biomolecules and inorganic substances across a beetroot membrane using colorimetry to determine the degree of membrane disruption. Draw conclusions from the data collected.
• Investigate the semi-permeability of an artificial membrane to differences substances including water, starch, protein and glucose; investigate the relationship between surface area and volume using agar cell diffusion.
• Identify and classify native plants, based on structures to maintain water balance.
• 
  Design, plan and conduct an experiment to show how an environmental factor such as light intensity, temperature or humidity affects the transpiration rate of a vascular plant.
  

Detailed example

Student-adapted or designed investigation

The scientific investigation builds on knowledge and skills developed in Unit 1 Area of Study 1 and/or Area of Study 2. Teachers must consider the management logistics of the investigation, taking into account number of students, available resources and student interest. The following questions require consideration:

• What input would students have into the selection of the question?
• To what extent will all students consider the same investigation question, or complete different parts of the same question so that class data can be pooled?
• What input would students have into the design of the experiment?

Teachers could provide students with a template that structures the investigation into a series of timed phases. Students may subsequently adapt the template as a personal work plan in their logbooks.

Investigation exploration phase

In this detailed example, the investigation question was generated following a class discussion about why certain vegetables and fruit become softer compared to others, relating to osmosis practical activities undertaken in Area of Study 1. Further discussion led to discussion of ways to stop vegetables and fruit becoming soft. Suggestions included keeping them in cold conditions, such as a fridge, and soaking them in water. From this discussion students formulated a question for investigation: How do environmental conditions affect osmosis in fruit or vegetables?

Planning phase

Students may need guidance in:

• fitting the investigation into the time available, and developing a work plan
• identifying the technical skills involved in the investigation
• ensuring that resources are available to meet the requirements of the investigation.

Teachers should work with students to:

• determine to what extent students will work independently or in groups (different students or groups may investigate different vegetables or fruits or use the same vegetable and fruit and use different environmental conditions; for example, varying sucrose or salt concentrations or varying temperatures)
• discuss the independent, dependent and controlled variables in the experiment
• identify safety aspects of cutting vegetables and fruit, including use of gloves and knives, reducing contamination, use of sealed containers such as covered petri dishes or Tupperware containers for the investigation; correct disposal of fruit or vegetables in the school laboratory
• establish the use of standard notation and SI units and how to reference sources and provide appropriate acknowledgments.

Investigation phase

Prior to students undertaking scientific investigations, the teacher must approve student-designed methods. A possible general method for the experiment is as follows:

• Students collect and assemble equipment including data recording materials.
• Students cut even portions of fruit or vegetables and then place each sample into a relevant container to the investigation (other variables should be explicitly controlled).
• Students observe the containers and take a digital photo daily of each fruit or vegetable to record observations.
• Students use the photos and data to determine the effect of osmosis. The investigation should take place over at least one week.

Processing phase

Students consider the data collected, report on any errors or problems encountered, and use evidence to explain and answer the investigation question. Differences in osmosis can be explained in terms of the amount of water present in fruit or vegetables.

Reporting phase

The above phases could be recorded in the student logbook. The report of the investigation can take various forms including a written report, a scientific poster or an oral presentation of the investigation.

Further investigation phase

Other avenues for further investigation include:

• determination of the composition and amount of water in different fruits or vegetables
• effect of changing variables on osmosis, for example light intensity, humidity.

Outcome 1

On completion of this unit the student should be able to explain and compare chromosomes, genomes, genotypes and phenotypes, and analyse and predict patterns of inheritance.

Examples of learning activities

• Design an infographic, or similar, to outline the sequencing of the human genome and show the relationship between a genome, the nature and location of genes and their alleles. An example timeline can be found with supporting information at 'Unlocking Life's Code'. Additionally, a record of organisms that have had their genomes sequences can be found at
  'Your Genome'.
  
• The National Human Genome Research Institute lists 15 ways that genomics influences our world. Much of this connects directly to other topics students have learnt through Unit 1 or will continue to learn in Units 3 and 4
  
• Create analogies to represent the relationship between genes, alleles and a genome.
• Analyse the play Photograph 51 by Anna Ziegler and outline the contribution Rosalind Franklin made to the discovery of the DNA structure.
• Create models of homologous chromosomes and gene loci. Construct a karyotype of the chromosome models. This can also be done as a simulation at Univeristy of Utah Learn Genetics.
  
• Compare karyotypes between different patients, like this from the Biology Corner. Alternatively, compare karyotypes between organisms in terms of size and number of chromosomes.
• Students undertake a Karyotype Stations Activity, similar to this idea from Science Lessons That Rock.
  
• Respond to a series of genetic problems that involve interpretation and use of genetic language, the allocation of symbols to genotypes and the definition of phenotypes as dominant or recessive.
• Simulate genetic variation through inheritance using a 'Reebops'​ or similar activity.
• Conduct an experiment to determine whether fingerprints are inherited, similar to that from 'Science Buddies' Identify limitations and suggest improvements to increase accuracy and/or precision.
• Use computer simulations (e.g. 'Science Courseware'​) to investigate patterns of inheritance; for example, in Drosophila.
• Construct pedigree charts using students' own family histories for the inheritance of a genetic characteristic such as hair colour or eye colour over several generations; from the information suggest the likely mode of inheritance.
• Consider whether genetic carrier screening could be recommended to all prospective parents (Article: ABC, Audio from Radio Article: ABC). Connect the diseases referred to in the article to patterns of inheritance, including autosomal and sex-linked inheritance, expression of dominant and recessive phenotypes and predicting genetic outcomes for a monohybrid cross. Explain this, using pedigree charts and symbols. Apply understanding to local online simulations investigating patterns of inheritance (Newbyte). Propose plausible recommendations to the issue of genetic carrier screening, based on genetic knowledge and ethical understandings. Work in groups, with rotation of groups, to consider the viewpoints of stakeholders and current Australian laws. Select one or more ethical approach and concept (pages 16 and 17) to explore the issue of genetic carrier screening. Consider students' own positons and suggested course of action, based on the collated class data, discussion and scientific evidence, reasoning and reflection. Debrief and reflect on the experience: what has been learnt from other stakeholder perspectives and what has changed in their own opinion? Useful resources: VCGS, Genomic Diagnostics
• Discuss Fragile X Syndrome, a common genetic condition (Fragile X) and how genetic carrier screening identifies Fragile X. Model karyotypes with Fragile X and non-Fragile X in both males and females. Pose questions to identify: chromosome abnormalities within the karyotype, chromosome variability in males and females (size and number), autosomes, sex chromosomes, homologous chromosomes, genes, alleles and genome. Create an infographic and / or analogies to explain and link biological terminology.
• Consider a genetic disease and model the behaviour of a pair of chromosomes during meiosis and annotate key features. Simulate meiosis using an interactive animation to produce new assortments of alleles that give rise to variations in offspring phenotypes. Create a Venn diagram or other graphic organiser to compare mitosis and meiosis, explaining why there are differences and identifying misconceptions. Discuss models and diagrams with peers to challenge understanding.
  
• Learn more about Epigenetics through watching videos, such as PBS Learning Media.
  

• 
  Complete a literature review to answer the research question 'What is epigenetics and how do epigenetic factors influence phenotype?'.
  

Detailed example

What is epigenetics and how do epigenetic factors influence phenotype?

The literature review will gather and analyse secondary data related to scientific findings and/or viewpoints and/or other people's opinions in order to answer a question, to provide background information to explain observed events.

The literature review is designed to inform the reader of the relevance of the scientific research and includes background information enabling the reader to understand the key areas involved. It is usual to start the review with a broad scope and become more specific.

Search by keyword, subject and/or author. Sources used are to be current and, where possible, original articles referenced rather than reviews of the articles. Consider a variety of sources you are using (e.g. journals, books, government documents, conference papers and popular media).

Remember to keep track of reading materials and reference appropriately.

Key science skills

Identify, inform and teach students a selection of key science skills that are embedded in the task.

Steps in conducting a literature review

Creating a mind map

1. Start by putting the topic or central issue in the middle of the page in landscape format.
2. Branch off this the major themes/issues/questions the literature review will need to address in whatever order you wish. Note that one sub-theme which always needs to be addressed is: Why is this an issue / interesting / important? Thinking in terms of key questions, rather than topics, is often helpful.
3. Next, put in the key points / examples / theories that will need to be addressed under each sub-theme.
4. Look for follow-on sub-themes / questions (e.g. a follow-on to a sub-theme on 'problems' would be 'current solution approaches') and look for links between sub-themes.
5. Use your map to determine a logical order for your writing.

Using an organiser for note taking

Research/topic question: What is epigenetics and how does it influence phenotype?
Article	Key findings/ arguments	Supporting evidence/ Methods	Strengths/ Limitations	Significance/ Implications

Suggested websites:

Garvan Institute of Medical Research
Australian Academy of Science
The Guardian
The Walter and Eliza Hall Institute of Medical Research
ABC Science
SBS NITV news
Newcastle Herald

 

Outcome 2

On completion of this unit the student should be able to analyse advantages and disadvantages of reproductive strategies, and evaluate how adaptations and interdependencies enhance survival of species within an ecosystem. An example with using freash flowering plants such as roses tulips, lilies, etc.  can be foud at Science Buddies.

Examples of learning activities

• Dissect and examine the reproductive structures of an insect-pollinated and a wind-pollinated flower and explain how each is adapted for pollination. An example with using fresh flowering plants such as roses, tulips, lilies, etc. can be found at Science Buddies.
  
• Consider the Bynoe's gecko, which can reproduce both asexually and sexually. Predict how this may be possible; research how this is possible; explain how this occurs and distinguish the biological advantages and disadvantages, including genetic diversity of offspring, communicating ideas in a meaningful way.
• Read the article about cloning extinct species – 'Return of the living thylacine' (COSMOS). Connect the information in the article/s to the process and application of reproductive cloning technologies. Explain how reproductive cloning works. Apply understanding to consider the biological advantages and disadvantages. Consider: Is the cloning asexual or sexual reproduction? Why? Propose plausible recommendations to the issue of reproductive cloning, based on biological knowledge and ethical understandings. Evaluate data by referring to the accessed online texts and considering the quality of the type of data, the reliability and validity of the data, the methodology evaluation, bias, and scientific versus non-scientific ideas. Work in groups, with rotation of groups, to select one or more ethical approach and concept (pages 16 and 17) to explore the issue of cloning extinct species, such as the thylacine. Students consider their own position and suggested course of action, based on the collated class data, discussion and scientific evidence, reasoning and reflection. Debrief and reflect on this experience: what has been learnt from considering different ethical approaches and/or concepts and changes in their own opinion?
• Consider whether you can clone your pet dog. Interpret a range of scientific and media texts to evaluate the processes and claims of dog cloning. Work in groups, with rotation of groups, to consider the viewpoints of stakeholders. Select one or more ethical approach and concept (pages 16 and 17) to explore the issue of cloning pets. Students consider their own position and suggested course of action, based on the collated class data, discussion and scientific evidence, reasoning and reflection. Debrief and reflect on their experience: what has been learnt from other stakeholder perspectives and what has changed in their own opinion?
• Visit Zoos Victoria and Ecolinc to investigate the effect that Devil Facial Tumour Disease (DFTD) has had on the Tasmanian Devil as an apex predator and keystone species.
• Plan and conduct an investigation into vegetatively propagating a native plant using a cutting. Outline the biological advantages and disadvantages of asexual reproduction and why this is considered asexual reproduction. More Information can be found at Parks Australia.
  
• Model how an adaptation such as colour for camouflage against predation enhances survival of an organism by calculating the 'survival rate' of different coloured tooth picks that are subject to predation from pegs in various habitats, or by undertaking a timed 'hunt the red ribbon' activity using 5 cm lengths of red and green ribbon on (a) red and (b) green backgrounds.
• Investigate the variation in size of pollen grains in different species of flowering plants and suggest the adaptive advantages of identified differences.
• Investigate the motion of fallen seeds and explain how motion as an adaptation is related to survival of the species.
• Devise an inquiry to test an explanation of how seeds can spread over wide distances.
• Use life-size footprints and/or handprints of less well-known animal species to suggest what the whole animal would look like, how it would move, what it would eat and what special adaptations it could have to assist in species survival.
• Research and explain the theory behind 'companion planting'. Investigate and report on the veracity of companion planting claims; for example, planting tomatoes and basil together to repel flies. Examples of extended investigations can be found at Land Learn or Kids Gardening.
  
• Investigate the adaptations and distribution patterns of mosses and algae in relation to orientation and altitude and how these features allow them to survive in a wide range of environments.
• Discuss what determines the classification of a plant as a 'weed'. Use the case study of Echium plantagineum,which is generally known as 'Paterson's curse' but in South Australia is called 'Salvation Jane', and discuss how the adaptations of Echium plantagineum allow it to survive in a wide range of environments.
• Investigate the diverse range of ecosystems across Victoria, considering the adaptations that species in each environment have to enable them to survive, the keystone species and predators that help to maintain balance and the interdependencies between species within each ecosystem.
• Visit Ecolinc to investigate adaptations of birds of prey and dynamic ecosystems
• Read the article 'Way of the water lilies' (ABC). Connect the information in the article to the why there were changes to keystone species, such as the water lily and the impact this has on the ecosystem. Explain how Aboriginal perspectives understood the importance of the water lily and the billabong. Evaluate the data by referring to the accessed online texts and consider the quality of the type of data, the reliability and validity of the data, the methodology evaluation, bias, and scientific versus non-scientific ideas.
• Plants and animals of the Mallee shrublands (Australian National Botanic Gardens) have special adaptations to help them withstand the dry conditions and high temperatures. Choose a plant or animal, consider each adaptation (structural, physiological and behavioural) and create a model of the plant or animal, explaining why it enhances the organism's survival in a wide range of environments. 'A key part of the spiritual relationship that Aboriginal people have with the land is based upon the idea of connection; connection between plants and animals, the non-living elements, weather, seasons and cycles, soil, water. This is the basis of all ecological thinking upon which healthy biodiversity is dependent' (Royal Botanic Gardens Victoria). Consider this perspective and recognise a connection the plant or animal had with the land, and with the Aboriginal people.
• Visit Zoos Victoria to explore the structural, physiological and behavioural adaptations of the Southern Corroboree Frog.
• Research and describe 'Indigenous Ecological Knowledge (IEK)' within the Gunditj Mirring Partnership Project across the far southwest of Victoria, informed from the traditional and contemporary Gunditimara land management practices (Gunditjmirring). Explain the contribution of Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander people's knowledge and perspectives in understanding the adaptations of species in Australian ecosystems.
• Investigate Aboriginal hunting practices that increase animal populations and discuss Indigenous fire practices used to support plants reproductive strategies and adaptations within an ecosystem. (Aboriginal patch mosaic burning, Indigenous fire practice protecting the Gibson Desert's biodiversity ScienceDaily).
• Research Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander understandings of the adaptations and interdependencies of plant and animal cycles, the weather, seasons and environmental knowledge across Australia by comparing seasonal calendars of communities across Australia (Indigenous weather knowledge: Bureau of Meteorology).

• 
  Complete a correlational study to observe and record seasonal events and behaviours of local species in terms of reproductive strategies and adaptations.
  

Detailed example

Correlational study

Planned observation and recording of events and behaviours that have not been manipulated or controlled in order to understand the relationships/associations that exist between variables, to identify which factors may be of greater importance, and to make predictions.

Students consider an example of correlational studies, over many thousands of years, as Aboriginal people developed an intricate understanding of the environment and how different species have adapted to enhance an organism's survival and enable life to exist in a wide range of environments.

Key science skills

Identify, inform and teach students a selection of key science skills that are embedded in the task.

Introduction

The custodians of the Gariwerd region in the Grampians, including the Jardwadjali and Djab Wurrung language groups, recognise six distinct weather periods in the seasonal cycle. These are genuine seasons which relate to climatic features as well as referencing reproductive strategies such as plant flowering, fruiting and animal behaviour patterns. Understanding the land through seasonal observations was essential to survival. Gariwerd National Park is home to many rare and endangered species of plants and animals, and is recognised as the single most important botanical reserve in Victoria.

Today the cycles are a vital tool and contribute to the management of Gariwerd. To understand the season, we can begin to understand Gariwerd and its people.

Permission to use the Gariwerd seasonal calendar and related information on the Indigenous Weather Knowledge website is given by the Elders/Directors of Gariwerd, which includes the Gunditjmara, Winda Mara (Kerrup Jamara), Goolum Goolum, Kirrae Whurrong and Framlingham peoples.

Useful resources:

Brambuk The National Park and Cultural Centre
Gariwerd calendar
Gariwerd/Grampians

Procedure

Consider the Gariwerd seasonal cycles in terms of observations of months of the year, depictions, weather, plants, fungi, birds, reptiles, amphibians, fish, insects and mammals in the woodland and/or wetland areas.

Identify the reproductive strategies that each species uses as well as the structural, physiological and behavioural adaptations that enable them to survive in the different environments within Gariwerd National Park.

Students then consider their own correlational study in their local community from a seasonal perspective, conduct planned observations of native plants and animals and record events and behaviours (that have not been manipulated or controlled to understand the relationship between variables) of local species in terms of reproductive strategies and structural, physiological and behavioural adaptation. 

Students decide how they will conduct the study. They may choose to record their observations and communicate their scientific ideas using an online blog (using a selected blogging website of choice such as Weebly).

Compare and contrast student and/or group and/or class observations. Discuss similarities and differences between observations. Which factors are of greater importance? Students reflect on the degree of influence of this study on their lifestyle compared to the influence of the correlational studies on the Gariwerd peoples.

Discussion

A series of graded questions could be set for students to answer in their logbook, for example:

• Compare: What are the similarities and differences between students' correlational study observations and Gariwerd peoples' observations?
• Explain: How do observations influence lifestyle for students' local communities and Gariwerd peoples? If there is a difference, suggest why.
• Evaluate: Comment on the accuracy, precision and validity of the results of the correlational studies.
• Reflect: Review observations and consider the contribution that Gariwerd peoples' knowledge and perspectives contribute to understandings of adaptations and interdependencies in Australian ecosystems. How is this knowledge currently utilised? Imagine future use of this knowledge.

Extension

Consider another Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander seasonal calendar (Indigenous Weather Knowledge - Bureau of Meteorology and compare and contrast the differences in species, reproductive strategies, adaptations and interdependences that allow species to survive and exist in the environments to which the chosen seasonal calendar relates.

 

Outcome 3

On completion of this unit the student should be able to identify, analyse and evaluate a bioethical issue in genetics, reproductive science or adaptations beneficial for survival.

Examples of learning activities

Examples of investigation topics include:

• genomic and epigenetic research
• cloning for agriculture, horticulture or other purposes
• assisted reproductive technologies
• prenatal and predictive genetic testing
• strategies for maintaining genetic diversity within a species or population
• importance of genetic diversity within a species or population
• changes to specific keystone species on populations and ecosystems
• use of biomimicry to solve human challenges
• biopiracy of Indigenous knowledge.

The following broad questions relate to bioethical issues that could be investigated:

• Who should have access to an individual’s genetic information?
• Should age limits be placed on genetic screening?
• Should genetic disorders be prioritised for screening?
• Should genetic technology be used to increase the genetic diversity of an endangered species?
• Should genetic technology be used to increase a species resistance to a threat?
• Should species be released into environments that are not their native environment?

Outcome 1

On completion of this unit the student should be able to analyse the relationship between nucleic acids and proteins, and evaluate how tools and techniques can be used and applied in the manipulation of DNA.

Examples of learning activities

• Use the context of type 1 diabetes and the protein insulin to investigate the following using a range of activities: protein structure, gene structure (insulin gene and mutations), DNA structure; protein synthesis, including RNA structure Useful resources include: WEHI, Garvan Insitute, Diabetes Australia, Baker Heart and Diabetes Institute, Medical Journal of Australia
  
• Model the structure of DNA through online simulations and animations; for example, try these ‘DNA origami’ STEM and ‘DNA sequence bracelets’ STEM. Modify the origami or bracelet activity to model RNA.
  
• Extract and compare the DNA from a range of fruits and/or vegetables (refer to the University of Queesnland). Explain which part of a nucleotide makes the DNA different for the compared fruits and/or vegetables. Place DNA samples on a microscope slide, stain with a nuclear dye such as methylene blue and observe under a microscope. Perform electrophoresis on DNA samples and compare results for different fruits/vegetables. Suggest whether this procedure would be suitable for extracting DNA from animal cells.
• Model the structures of DNA and the three forms of RNA. Set up a table or use a Venn diagram to summarise the similarities and differences in their sub-units.
• Explore how the work of Franklin, Watson, Crick and Wilkins exemplifies some of the ways in which a range of evidence from many sources contributed to developing the model of the structure of DNA.
• Analyse the play Photograph 51 by Anna Ziegler and outline the contribution Rosalind Franklin made to the discovery of the DNA structure.
• Research online the relationship between a gene and its expression into one or more proteins (not including transcription and translation); the concept of an individual’s proteome, and how this idea is being applied in some medical treatments (e.g. blister fluid test to speed healing time of burns). Construct a flowchart to show the relationships found. ABC News.
  
• Create a model to demonstrate the structure of genes in eukaryotic cells. Compare and contrast models with others and identify limitations.
  
• Create a multimodal presentation ‘Meet the Organelles’ to profile and sequence the organelles involved in the processing, packaging and transport of a protein. A Virtual Cell tour can help with this.
  
• Interpret the genetic code by using tables that specify an amino acid for a codon.
• Access online articles and research reports related to gene expression.
• Access online animations and tutorials relating to transcription and translation. Use a matrix to develop assessment criteria to rate the usefulness of the online information.
• Access representations of the molecular structures of amino acids, each student randomly selecting two amino acids to construct and model how the two selected monomers combine to form a dipeptide. Work in groups to combine dipeptides to form two different polypeptide chains.
• Create a table describing different examples of proteins that are formed within cells and the roles that they carry out within living things.
  
• Use a central database to investigate proteomics. Write an account of the information that is available to scientists and the nature of the source of the data.
  
• Use a web-based multimedia learning program to become familiar with the processes of transcription and translation (for example, DNA Interactive). Write a summary or construct a flowchart to illustrate protein synthesis.
• Complete a series of questions related to the complementary base-pairing occurring during protein synthesis and the resultant amino acid sequencing.
  
• Create a hands-on interactive model or develop a slowmation that shows the trp operon in action when tryptophan is (a) present in high concentrations, in prokaryotic cells, to demonstrate the elements of both represssion and attenuation gene regulation.

• Use the context of type 1 diabetes and how insulin is made to investigate the following, using a range of activities: use of recombinant plasmids as vectors to transform bacterial cells; use of enzymes to manipulate DNA. Or use some other example resources including : GTAC or Lab Xchange.
  

• Use the context of DNA profiling to solve a particular crime or to reconnect families, particularly from the Stolen Generation, to investigate the following using a range of activities: amplification of DNA using PCR; the use of gel electrophoresis to sort DNA fragments; the interpretations of gel runs to profile DNA; bioethical issues of who owns the DNA, how it is used and how accurate, reliable and valid the results are. Useful resources: the ABC, Science Daily, SBS.
• Explore eDNA as a new technology used as an innovative survey method. Refer to articles on the Arthur Rylah Institute for Environmental Research and ‘Detecting Nature’s Fingerprint’. Read the articles and connect the information in the articles to the key knowledge, specifically, amplification of DNA using PCR. Represent your understanding. Explain why this technology is useful in gathering data, what knowledge may be created, possible implications of the research findings and potential issues. Apply the understanding of the use of eDNA technology to one of the case studies in ‘Detecting Nature’s Fingerprint’. Propose how the findings may be extended and/or other environmental issues it may solve.
  
• Download a CRISPR-Cas9 interactive app (e.g HHMI BioInteractive) to explore and understand the biotechnology tool using self-paced animations and/or games. Construct multimodal representations of the animations. Watch videos of research scientists and create short presentations to describe the applications of this technology.
• Use secondary sources to research the tools and techniques used for gene manipulation. Compile a resource file and use this to prepare a summary of their purpose and the way that DNA is manipulated or modified.
• Analyse and evaluate a scenario involving a DNA application. Provide a response to the bioethical issues raised in the scenario.
• Perform a restriction digest on lambda phage DNA using three different restriction enzymes and sort out the fragments using gel electrophoresis. Example resources: Bio-Rad Restriction Digestion and Analysis of Lammbda DNA Kit OR Lambda DNA information and digest: BioInformatics.
  
• Conduct an experiment on the transformation of E.coli using the pGLO plasmid, e.g. Southern Biological.
  
• View an anotated simulation of gel electrophoresis: PBS Learning or view other videos and interactives at HHMI BioInteractive.
  
• Access the 'Learn Genetics' and ‘Virtual Labs’ for PCR (Learn Genetics PCR) and electrophoresis simulations (Learn Genetics Electrophoresis) simulations.
  
• Search online for the research paper 'Align​ing Goals, Assessment and Activities: An Approach to Teaching PCR and Gel Electrophoresis' to access materials involving critical thinking related to PCR and electrophoresis activities Life Sci Ed.
  
• Develop a media file of articles related to a contemporary biological issue involving biotechnologies and their impact on society. Annotate each item to identify the biological concepts involved in the issue and the social, environmental and ethical concerns raised by the issue.
• Storyboard and create an animation of the transformation of bacterial cells to produce human insulin using online animation software.
• Discuss the topic: ‘Is DNA manipulation necessary to achieve increased genetic diversity?’
• Analyse a case study of a food crop that has been trans-genetically modified by explaining the nature of the modification, the benefit for food production and any real or perceived negative consequences.
• 
  Use a Project Based Learning (PBL) approach to investigate DNA and gene structure and the function and application of a gene editing tool, CRISPR-Cas9 both now and into the future.
  

Detailed example

Project-based learning to explore DNA manipulation using CRISPR-Cas9, a gene editing tool

Aim

To use a Project Based Learning (PBL) approach to investigate DNA and gene structure and the function and application of a gene editing tool, CRISPR-Cas9 both now and into the future.

Introduction

Students work in small groups to undertake an in-depth inquiry into the use of the protein CRISPR-Cas9, linking to DNA, gene structure and enzymes; and create, compose or produce a product for an authentic audience.

Teaching notes

This detailed example draws on the principles of PBL developed by the Buck Institute for Education.

A PBL approach begins with an open-ended question, which is ideally provocative and engaging so that it captures students’ interest. Students investigate this question and brainstorm possible solutions, learning relevant content during the process. They then apply their learning in creative ways to produce, demonstrate or perform something, advocate for a policy or solution, or teach something to others, practising their communication skills in the process.

Each student-centred project is broken down into three main stages, which can overlap in time frame:

• inquire/discover/research
• create/compose/produce
• present/share/promote.

Teachers may provide questions for investigation or develop these questions in conjunction with their students. A manageable way to tackle this task may be:

• determine the questions to be investigated as a class
• student groups share their groups’ learning with their class peers
• students complete a ‘compare and contrast matrix’ for the presentations.

Assessment can include self- and peer-assessment questionnaires and a compare and contrast matrix. In this way the contribution of each student within any group is accounted for.

Approximate time frames are proposed for each stage.

Key science skills

Teachers should identify and inform students of the relevant key science skills that are embedded in the task.

Preparation

Students may need assistance in deconstructing the investigation question.

​​Teachers could also discuss the necessary skills required to work well in a group, including perseverance and a positive attitude.

Health and safety note

There are no specific health and safety concerns associated with this activity.

Stage 1: Inquire/discover/research

CRISPR babies: when will the world be ready? (Refer to an article in Nature).

God in a Kit: The perils and possibilities of a tool called CRISPR (Refer to an article in the Sydney Morning Herald).

• From the stimulus articles, students choose an investigation question that interests them personally; ideally they make their personal interest in it explicit by recording initial ideas in the logbook.
• Form teams of three to four people who have some interest in the same investigation question. The teacher may facilitate this.
• As a team, brainstorm what they do know and do not know about the investigation question. What specific questions do they need to investigate further? Use key science skills and key knowledge to guide and inform the research. Each student should keep evidence of the process in their logbooks.
• Consider how the investigation question affects different people and the issues it raises – research, identify and describe relevant individuals, stakeholders and community groups. What specific questions need further investigation? Students need to keep evidence of the process in their logbooks and also keep a record of where they sourced the information in case they need to return to it later.
• Review the selected investigation question and reframe/rewrite it if necessary to include specific parameters (for example, to refine it to a particular example).
• Nominate valid sources, such as organisations or professionals in the field, who might be able to supply information to help answer the specific questions identified as requiring further investigation.
• Collect as much information as possible on the investigation question by dividing up these tasks between individuals within the group. Remember to agree on a timeline for completion. This might include using methods such as: online/library research; photo and video documentation; experimental data; and highlighting experts with a variety of different viewpoints. Each student should keep and share a careful log of their research – dates, times, sources, observations, summaries, etc.
• As a group, analyse the evidence collated and create charts, graphs and/or other visual representations to understand the findings.

Stage 2: Create/compose/produce

• Based on their research, ask what specific process/solution they would like to compose that addresses the investigation question. Their task is to make public a strong, convincing explanation to a real/authentic audience. Does the group want to design a website, plan a community information event, improve an existing project/program, make a presentation to interested people? Or something else?
• Identify all the steps required to make this stage happen.
• Make contact with their real/authentic audience and present to them a very brief description of the intended product and the reason for the inquiry into the investigation question. Students keep evidence of their contact in their logbooks.
• Create the product and collect evidence of the process.

Stage 3: Present/share/promote

• Present the final product to class peers for initial review. Randomly selected class peers complete an assessment questionnaire (based on criteria in a provided assessment rubric). Complete self- and team peer-assessment questionnaires.
• Deliver the final product to the real/authentic audience. Collect evidence of the process. Randomly selected audience members complete assessment questionnaires.
• Students complete a written ‘compare and contrast matrix’ for the selected question that addresses the following categories: factors that influence the use of CRISPR-Cas9, the scientific understanding and the potential issues, including identifying probably stakeholders and possible solutions.

Suggested links to articles that support learning

Gene-edited babies: what does the law allow in Australia?

Australia approves cutting edge CRISPR gene editing technology

Taking the sting out: Australian gene editing is crossing the pain threshold

CRISPR Cancer trial finds that gene edited immune cells are safe

Podcast: Genetic Snip and Snap - Editing genes and tackling diseases with CRISPR technology: University of Melbourne

Outcome 2

On completion of this unit the student should be able to analyse the structure and regulation of biochemical pathways in photosynthesis and cellular respiration, and evaluate how biotechnology can be used to solve problems related to the regulation of biochemical pathways.

Examples of learning activities

• Using the context of either photosynthesis or cellular respiration, model how an enzyme operates; use examples to illustrate competitive and non-competitive inhibition.
• Formulate a hypothesis, make a prediction and explore the effect of changing temperature and/or pH and/or concentration on the activity of a specific enzyme in relation to photosynthesis or cellular respiration.
• Using the context of either photosynthesis or cellular respiration, produce an infographic to explain the difference between an enzyme and a coenzyme.
  
• Explore the Science and Plants for Schools Respiration and Photosynthesis Animation.
  
• Explore the separation of plant pigments using chromatography (eg. Libre Texts Biology). Discuss the role of pigments in plants, the location of pigments within a cell and their role in the production of biomolecules.
• Plan and conduct an experiment to investigate whether the wavelength range of light used by terrestrial plants for photosynthesis differs from the range used by aquatic plants.
• Use key science skills to conduct investigations to determine the effect of light, water, temperature or carbon dioxide concentration on the rate of photosynthesis in plants.
• Design experiments to investigate the effects of different wavelengths of light on the photosynthetic capacity of different types of seedlings (for example, radish, spinach and lettuce).
• Evaluate the ways in which scientists use knowledge of factors affecting photosynthesis to make predictions and recommendations about suitable habitats for crop production (e.g. in the light of climate change).
• Use thin-layer chromatography to determine whether the photosynthetic pigments in the leaves of deciduous trees differ from those in the leaves of evergreen trees.
• Experimentally investigate the light-dependent reaction in photosynthesis as described on the Nuffield Foundation website. Use a spectrophotometer to measure the rate of photosynthesis or cellular respiration (recorded by the percentage of light transmission through coloured solution every three minutes) in experiments where bromothymol blue or other coloured indicators are used as indicators of the reactions; for example, photosynthetic activity is evident when bromothymol solution turns blue, as CO2 is used in the reaction, and cellular respiration activity is evident when bromothymol solution turns yellow, as CO2 is added to the solution by the reaction.
• Use a microtome to section plant specimens for viewing under a microscope and compare the chlorophyll distribution and density by developing hypotheses and undertaking investigations to determine whether there is a correlation between the location of a leaf on a tree and the concentration of chlorophyll.
• Experimentally explore how an enzymatic reaction of the Krebs cycle may be manipulated; for example, testing the effect of substituting malonic acid for succinic acid in the reaction where succinic acid dehydrogenase oxidises succinic acid into fumaric acid as part of the Krebs cycle.
• Use a respirometer to measure and compare the rates of cellular respiration in germinating and non-germinating/dormant (dry) pea seeds at varying temperatures (water baths of 0°C, 10°C, 25°C, 30°C, 50°C and 100°C), including a non-metabolising control.
• Develop a hypothesis and plan and conduct experiments to quantitatively determine how the rate of anaerobic respiration in yeast is affected by changing pH, temperature and sugar concentration.
• Create a multimodal presentation that outlines the main inputs, outputs and locations of the stages of cellular respiration or the main inputs, outputs and locations of the stages of photosynthesis.
• Create a Venn diagram to compare anaerobic fermentation in animals and yeasts, including location, inputs and outputs.
• Create a series of questions related to cellular energy transformations and a comparison of the energy changes in the different stages in photosynthesis and cellular respiration.
• Annotate a diagram of a chloroplast to show the main stages and sites in photosynthesis and a mitochondrion to show the main stages in cellular respiration.
• Research online and create an infographic that describes a technique that is used by scientists in the field of biotechnology and the advances that are being made as a result of its application; for example, the use of anaerobic fermentation in production of biofuel from biomass.
• Access online journals and interpret a range of scientific and media texts to construct an infographic to highlight how CRISPR-Cas9 technology may be used to improve photosynthetic and crop yields.
• Explore approaches to bioethics and ethical concepts using examples of bioethical issues of anaerobic fermentation and CRISPR-Cas9 applications. Identify and explain judgments or decisions associated with these issues.
• Explore why gene editing is the next food revolution (see the National Geographic website), the uses of gene editing to work towards eliminating cereal rust in wheat and powdery mildew in grapes, increasing omega 3 canola and plant biomass oil or any other suitable application. Useful sites: CSIRO, GRDC,  ABC.
• Select one or more of the plants used in gene editing and use this as a context to plan and conduct fieldwork investigations into factors affecting the rate of photosynthesis, formulating hypotheses. Analyse and evaluate the fieldwork data, linking to the inputs, outputs and stages of photosynthesis and the degree to which the evidence supports the aim of the investigation, and support or refutes the hypotheses.
• In 2019, the Australian Government relaxed laws around gene editing, using CRISPR, in some forms, in plants and animals (refer to the websites of the ABC and the Australian Government’s Office of the Gene Technology Regulator). Consider the positions of other state and territory governments and other worldwide countries with regards to CRISPR-Cas9 technologies to improve photosynthetic efficiencies and crop yields. Identify and consider the positions of stakeholders (e.g. scientists, farmers, consumers, businesses). Work in groups, with rotation of groups, to consider the viewpoints of stakeholders. Select one or more ethical approach and concept (pages 16 and 17) to explore the issue of gene editing regulation in plants. Consider your own position and suggested course of action based on the collated class data, discussion and scientific evidence, reasoning and reflection. Debrief and reflect on this experience to consider what was learnt from other stakeholder perspectives and any changes made to opinions held.
• Use the context of current research into photosynthesis; for example, ‘designing a more productive corn able to cope with future climates’, ‘blue-green algae promises to help boost food crop yields’, ‘tiny highways in leaves could lead to more productive crops’ or ‘engineering better proteins could help feed a hungry world’. Refer to the ANU Research School of Biology: ANU - Designing more productive corn, ANU - blue-green algae to boost crop yeilds, ANU - tiny highway leaves produce more productive crops, ANU - boosting food production to feed the world. Use reasoning to draw and justify conclusions as to the role of Rubisco and C3, C4 and CAM adaptations. Devise evidence-based real or imagined solutions to the current research. Link the fieldwork data analysis to the impact on the function of Rubisco in photosynthesis or plan and conduct further fieldwork investigations. Useful resource: the Australian Research Council Centre for Excellence in Plant Energy Biology.
  
• Analyse and evaluate features of C3 and C4 Australian native grasses, linking the adaptations to the environment and indigenous plant use. Use clear and concise expression to communicate to a specific audience. Useful resources: the Native Grass Resources Group (publication – Understanding C3 and C4 native grasses), the NSW Department of Primary Industries (C3 and C4 native grasses), the Australian National Botanic Gardens Centre for Australian National Biodiversity (Indigenous plant use).
• Consider the issue: ‘Biofuel from crop waste lands funding boost for newly-proven sustainable technology’ as renewable energy  (refer to the Victorian State Government and the Australian Renewable Energy Agency.) Use this context to create a flowchart to highlight how biofuel is produced from biomass by anaerobic fermentation. Compare and contrast flowcharts, share ideas and viewpoints and modify flowcharts accordingly. Analyse case studies of various feedstocks used in biofuels and consider energy justice as a bioethical issue ‘Rethinking biofuels’ on the Monash University website. Consider your own positon and suggested course of action based on the group and/or class discussion and scientific evidence, reasoning and reflection. Debrief and reflect on this experience and any changes made to opinions held.
• Find a media article about a cyanide poisoning case or chemical warfare in humans. Use this as a context to represent how cyanide acts as an irreversible enzyme inhibitor in cellular respiration, including the main inputs, outputs and locations of the stages, including ATP yield. Pose and investigate questions regarding the impact of cyanide on other animals, plants and yeast.
• Plan and conduct investigations into factors affecting the rate of cellular respiration and formulate hypotheses. Analyse and evaluate the generated and collected data, linking to the inputs, outputs and stages of cellular respiration and the degree to which the evidence supports the aim of the investigation, and supports or refutes the hypotheses.
  
• 
  Conduct fieldwork to explore how leaf shape differs between native and introduced plant species and how this links to photosynthesis.
  

Detailed example

Fieldwork – How does leaf shape differ between native and introduced plant species and how does this link to photosynthesis?

Based on scientific inquiry, fieldwork involves observing and interacting with a selected environment beyond the classroom, usually in an attempt to determine correlation rather than causal relationship. It may be conducted through direct qualitative and / or quantitative observations and sampling, participant observation, interviews and questionnaires.

Key science skills

Identify, inform and teach students a selection of key science skills that are embedded in the task.

Compare the epidermal cellular structures (such as stomata) from the leaves of different wheat varieties. Suggest which might be best for a low rainfall environment (Part B).

Comparing leaf shape in Australian native and non-native plants

The practical investigation allows students develop, use and demonstrate related key science skills while drawing on key knowledge. Teachers must consider the management logistics of the practical investigation, taking into account the number of students, available resources and student interest. The following questions require consideration:

• What input would students have into the selection of the investigation question?
• What input would students have into the design of the fieldwork exercises?
• Will different groups of students in the class be able to undertake different investigations?
• Is class data pooling a possibility?
• Will off-school site work be involved?
• Is the investigation reliant on particular weather conditions and/or accessibility constraints?

Teachers could provide students with a template that structures the investigation into a series of timed phases. Students may subsequently adapt the template as a personal work plan in their logbooks.

Topic selection phase

In this detailed example, the investigation question is generated following stimulus articles such as ‘narrow leaves make better crops for future climates’. One student wondered why narrow leaves would be better, suggesting wider leaves would be better for plant growth. Another student considered Australian native trees and their narrow leaf shape. This led to discussions about indigenous, native and introduced plant species and how leaf shape is linked to photosynthesis. From this discussion students generated a question for investigation: How does leaf shape compare between native and introduced plant species? How might this impact on rates of photosynthesis and biochemical pathways?

Planning phase

Students may need guidance in:

• fitting the investigation into the time available, and developing a work plan
• identifying native and introduced plant species in the field
• conducting a simple literature review
• developing hypotheses and distinguishing between a hypothesis, prediction and conclusion.

Teachers should work with students to:

• identify and negotiate undertaking of various investigations by different students or student groups within the parameters of the question.

Investigation phase

Student-designed methodologies must be approved by the teacher prior to students undertaking practical investigations. A possible general management plan for the investigation follows.

• Determine the fieldwork site(s) and sampling plan, informed by the hypothesis.
• Determine the type of data collection (quantitative or qualitative), type of survey (direct or indirect), sampling size, reducing bias with replication and randomisation, any tools needed for data collection.
• Determine how data will be collected (photos and/or samples) and recorded. If collecting samples, minimise environmental impact.
• Determine how data will be analysed and evaluated.
• Consider how to construct evidence-based arguments and draw conclusions, linking to literature and current research.

Reporting phase

Students consider the data collected, report on any errors or problems encountered, and use evidence to explain and answer the investigation question. Differences in leaf shape should be related to the factors affecting the rate of photosynthesis and photosynthesis as a biochemical pathway, including the impact on enzyme function within pathway.

The above phases could be recorded in the student logbook. The report of the investigation can take various forms including a written report, a scientific poster or an oral presentation of the investigation.

Suggested resources

Australian National Botanic Gardens

Royal Botantic Gardens Victoria

Virtual plant cell

Outcome 1

On completion of this unit the student should be able to analyse the immune response to specific antigens, compare the different ways that immunity may be acquired and evaluate challenges and strategies in the treatment of disease.

Examples of learning activities

• Watch videos that compare the relative sizes of different pathogens, such as bacteria and viruses at BioInteractive or bacterial conjugation and the transfer to plasmids between species at: BioInteractive.
  
• Create an ‘immunology zoo’ to illustrate the form and function of immune system components.
  
• Create an animation to outline the steps in an inflammatory response using an online animation maker: ImmuneQuest, or the BioInteractivets (AAI).
  
• Explore plants used by the Dharawal Aboriginal people in Australia for the treatment of inflammatory conditions (on the Hindawi website) and consider bioethical issues that may occur in terms of the regulation of scientific research and protection of Indigenous cultural and intellectual property.
  
• Practical Investigation: Looking at Blood at Practical Biology
  
• Investigate how pollen counts (made by exposing microscope slides coated with Vaseline to the atmosphere for one day, on several successive days, ensuring slides are protected from rain) correlate to weather data and hay fever incidence. (Pollen can be observed by adding 1 or 2 drops of Calberla’s fluid to each slide; abundance is scored as 10 grains per cm2 = low, 10-20 = moderate and over 20 = severe).
• Construct a 3D model of an antibody binding to its complementary antigen.
• Prepare an annotated flowchart for the sequence of events occurring adaptive immune responses. Use appropriate labels and biological terminology to identify each of the cellular components and to explain the key events occurring in each response.
• Build and control a virtual immune system using the educational game ImmuneQuest
  
• Use online resources to research and prepare a summary on a disorder of the immune system, highlighting the related mechanisms of the immune response and the cellular involvement.
• Prepare an infographic or presentation that explains why and how the immune system attempts to reject transplanted tissues and organs, and outlines what strategies can be used to reduce the chances of rejection.
• Investigate and prepare a presentation on the production and use of antivenoms in Australia.
• Create a graphic organiser for each scenario listed below to illustrate the relationship between the invading antigen and the associated response by the immune system:
  
  • Scenario 1: As a child you were bitten by a snake and were given an emergency vaccination of antivenom. Explain why your doctor advised you that this procedure should never be boosted or repeated.
  • Scenario 2: You had your annual influenza injection a few months ago, after which you experienced a few flu-like symptoms. Now, you have caught ‘the flu’. Account for these two sets of observations.
  • Scenario 3: While swimming at the beach, you were stung by a jellyfish. Explain why your foot swelled and was red to touch.
  • Scenario 4: On your way home from the beach you tripped on some weatherbeaten wooden stairs between the beach and the road and got a splinter in your finger as you tried to steady yourself. You pulled the splinter out, but later your finger became swollen and red. A few days later your entire hand was swollen, the pain was intense, and you had a fever. Explain these observations.
  • Scenario 5: Three cases of polio have been identified at your school, even though polio had not been reported at the school for over twenty years. Propose three reasons for the outbreak.
  • Scenario 6: Your doctor has recommended a monoclonal antibody treatment plan that targets delivery of radiation-linked monoclonal antibodies specifically to your non-Hodgkins lymphoma cells. Explain how this treatment can differentiate between ‘normal’ and cancer cells.
  • Scenario 7: You have been diagnosed as requiring a liver transplant. Explain why a course of immunosuppressant drugs has been prescribed for you.
• Visit the World Health Organization website and research and report on a disease outbreak of an established or a new disease. Include information on how local cultural practices can facilitate its transmission and how the global community responds.
• Examine disease-causing organisms microscopically and macroscopically. Prepare a comparative table detailing the characteristics observed.
• Research the impact of European arrival on Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander peoples in terms of disease. Useful resources: Australians together, Aboriginal heritage, National Museum of Australia.
• Prepare a listing of the vaccination schedules currently in use for children in Australia. Compare the scheduling of vaccines and antibody serums.
• Access online resources (for example ‘The Vaccine War’ or ‘Vaccination: Perspectives of Australian parents’ at the Rich National Child Health Poll site) to discuss community views about vaccination.
• Research ‘Immunisation disputes in the Australian Family Law System’. How have the Family Law Courts resolved vaccination disputes between separated parents? More information can be found from the University of Technology Sydney Law Research Series.
  
• Access cancer information sites such as the Mayo Clinic, American Cancer Society, Cancer Research UK, Cancer Council Australia to research and create an annotated flowchart to illustrate the action of a selected drug therapy involving the use of monoclonal antibodies to treat cancer through one of the following mechanisms:
  
  • triggering the immune system to attack cancer cells (for example, making the cancer cells more visible to the immune system to attack or blocking molecules that stop the immune system from working to attack cancer cells, such as Rituxan for some lymphomas)
  • blocking signals that tell cancer cells to divide (for example, blocking growth factor receptors on cancer cells that signal the cells to grow, such as Erbitux to treat colon cancer and head and neck cancers)
  • stopping new blood vessels from forming (for example, stopping tumours with existing blood supplies sending out growth factors that attract new blood vessels, such as Avastin)
  • carrying cancer drugs or radiation directly to cancer cells (for example, delivering radiation or chemotherapy directly to cancer cells without affecting surrounding cells, such as Zevalin for non-Hodgkin’s lymphoma and Kadcyla in the treatment of some breast cancers).
    
• Use the context of smallpox and the impact on Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander people, including the smallpox outbreak and epidemic to investigate:
  
  • disease challenges and strategies, including vaccination programs, eradication of disease and their role in herd immunity
  • acquiring immunity and responding to antigens
  • exploring bioethical issues using one or more approaches to bioethics and/or ethical concepts.
  A KWL chart is a useful way to document learning throughout the investigation. Model and simulate the response to antigens and acquiring immunity, using smallpox or another disease as the context. Models and/or simulations are constructed over time. To support the models or simulations, use textbook or online interpretations (text/diagrams) and/or class activities (teacher guided and collaborative group discussion and construction of models) to construct explanations, illustrations and descriptions of the processes, using both text and images. Models and/or simulations are built on, refined and reflected on over time, informed from student knowledge, teacher feedback and collaborative group discussions. Useful resources: National Museum of Australia, Aboriginal Heritage, the ABC (search for smallpox, anti-vaccination movement), the Better Health Channel, Australian Government guidelines for smallpox outbreak). Simulations and online games: the Vaccine Makers Project, GTAC.
• Use the context of the Coronavirus (COVID-19) disease outbreak to:
  
  • Investigate the emergence of new pathogens
  • Investigate the scientific and social strategies employed to identify and control the spread of pathogens (on the World Health Organization website)
  • Explore bioethical issues using one or more approach to bioethics and/or ethical concepts.
• Investigate antiseptic agents that could be used to control the spread of pathogens, for example: the articles Liquid Chalk is an Antiseptic against SARS-CoV-2 and Influenza A Respiratory Viruses and ‘Indigenous medicine - a fusion of ritual and remedy. Discuss: What other bush medicines are bactericidal?
  
• Consider how funding influences which scientific and social strategies are able to be employed to identify and control the spread of pathogens. What ethical issues can be identified?
• Consider the viewpoints of stakeholders in the topic of ‘Ethics of surveillance and quarantine for particular diseases’. Working in groups, with rotation of groups, select one or more ethical approach and concept (pages 16 and 17) to explore the issue of surveillance and quarantine for the novel coronavirus. Consider your own position and suggested course of action, based on the collated class data, discussion and scientific evidence, reasoning and reflection. Debrief and reflect on this experience to consider what was learnt from other stakeholder perspectives and any changes made to opinions held. Useful resources: Nuffield Council on Bioethics, the Ethics Centre, the World Health Organization.
• Create an infographic or multimodal presentation that answers the questions: How does herd immunity work? What happens when herd immunity breaks down? (Find information online; for example Poland’s vaccine stats) Are vaccines safe? (Read about campaigns on the Australian Government Department of Health website.)
• Use approaches to bioethics and ethical concepts (pages 16 and 17) to consider the implementation of immunisation programs in Australia. Are they ethically justifiable?
• Consider the statement: ‘A drop in the number of young children diagnosed with type 1 diabetes could be associated with the introduction of routine rotavirus vaccination of Australian infants’ (from the WEHI website). Use this as a context to describe the possible development of immunotherapy strategies to treat autoimmune diseases and represent understanding of how the vaccination may prevent type 1 diabetes.
• 
  Using a case study to inspire investigation into immunotherapy, create knowledge and challenge misconceptions to create a conceptual model to simulate a system, to enhance understanding and inform others.
  

Detailed example

What is immunotherapy and how is it used to treat cancer?

Using a case study to inspire investigation into immunotherapy, create knowledge and challenge misconceptions to create a conceptual model to simulate a system, to enhance understanding and inform others.

As adapted from the Contemporary VCE Biology website (topic: Immunotherapy).

Aims

• identify that immunotherapy is the use of a person’s immune system to fight disease
• understand the potential for immunotherapy in treating cancer
• understand the process of adoptive T-cell therapy
• describe an overview of the processes involved in CAR T-cell therapy

Key science skills

Identify, inform and teach students a selection of key science skills that are embedded in the task.

Background information for teachers

This section introduces immunotherapy as a treatment for cancer. Immunotherapy uses a patient’s own immune responses to fight cancer. The use of immunotherapy to treat cancer has been evolving rapidly over the last couple of decades.

Adoptive T-cell therapy (ACT), employing a patient’s own cultured T cells is an emerging treatment for a variety of cancers. In ACT, the patient's T cells are removed in a process known as apheresis. The T cells known to fight the particular cancer in the patient are grown in a laboratory and inserted back into the patient’s body. Recently there has been the evolution of CAR T cells. CAR stands for chimeric antigen receptors, which is a type of antigen-targeted receptor that has been genetically engineered onto a patient’s own T cell. The use of genetic engineering approaches to insert antigen-targeted receptors of defined specificity into T cells has greatly enhanced the potential capabilities of ACT. These CAR T cells are better able to seek out and kill specific target cells (Magee 2014).

Cytotoxic T cells, also known as cytotoxic T lymphocytes (CTLs) are specialised white blood cells that, when activated, seek out and kill infected cells. The CAR T cells are cytotoxic T cells that have been genetically modified to improve the ability to target and kill cancer cells.

Students investigate the structure and actions of cytotoxic T cells and how they detect and attack cancers cells, also known as target cells. Students engage in a number of concrete and creative activities, including being introduced to appropriate scientific vocabulary, and demonstrating their understanding of the cellular processes involved in T cell mediated killing.

Students are introduced to investigative research aimed at improving CAR T cell technology. Students may observe videos from scientists at the Walter and Eliza Hall Institute (WEHI) who are involved in research to improve the efficacy of CAR T cells.

To inspire investigation and engage and motivate learners to want to understand how T-cell therapies work in the treatment of cancer, visit the Cancer Research Institute website and watch the case study of Emily Whitehead, the first child with acute lymphoblastic leukemia (ALL) to be treated with CAR T-cell therapy, with amazing results.

Activity 1: What is Immunotherapy?

Teachers can choose to use one or all of the following activities: a mind map, think-pair-share, listing pros and cons.

Whole class mind map

Create a whole-class mind map about students' understanding of immunotherapy within the scope of the case study of Emily Whitehead. Suggested mind map headings could be, but are not limited to: Immunotherapy, T cells, CAR T cells, Cancer, Clinical Trials.

List class questions, wonderings and areas for further investigation. Place the mind map on the classroom wall for the duration of the unit.

Student mind map or Venn diagram

Create an individual or small-group student mind map or Venn diagram about students' understanding of immunotherapy within the scope of the case study of Emily Whitehead. Students list wonderings, questions, and areas for further investigation. Place the mind map or Venn diagram in the logbook.

Think-Pair-Share

Students undertake a collaborative activity to answer the question(s): What is immunotherapy? What is CAR T-cell therapy? Students think individually about the question(s), undertake independent research and then share ideas with a classmate. This activity could be used for students who have difficulty in sharing within a whole-class forum.

Pros and Cons

Students list the pros and cons of using CAR T-cell therapy. This list can be generated by individuals or from group discussion. Discuss potential issues with immunotherapy.

Activity 2: Visualising Adoptive T-cell therapy

Students use a range of visual strategies to represent their understanding of the key processes of immunotherapy using T cells, demonstrating a range of key knowledge and key science skills, as decided by the class.
Visual representation can be in the form of, but not limited to a:

• Flow diagram
• Mind map
• Concept map
• Illustration
• DigiExplanation – using appropriate digital technologies

Students share their visual representations as a class or in small groups. Students are encouraged to ask questions, challenge explanations and discuss the similarities and differences in representations and how they assist in learning. Students reflect on the class and/or individual mind map to document their learning.

Suggested resources

Immunotherapy: Garvan Institute of Medical Research

Body’s T cells destroying cancer cells: Research from the University of Cambridge

Adoptive cell therapy: videos on the Cancer Research Institute website

Tumour immunology and immunotherapy: visit the Nature Portfolio website

Further detailed information – T cells and MHC proteins: NCBI Resources  

Leukemia remission after immunotherapy: Hutch News Stories

Outcome 2

On completion of this unit the student should be able to analyse the evidence for genetic changes in populations and changes in species over time, analyse the evidence for relatedness between species, and evaluate the evidence for human change over time.

Examples of learning activities

• Use a computer simulation to investigate natural selection in, for example, peppered moths, frogs, beetles. Summarise findings including appropriate presentation of qualitative and quantitative data and a conclusion that relates findings to the effects of natural selection on genetic diversity. Examples include; PhET and Biology Simulations.
  
• Model natural selection in peppered moths: cut equal numbers of small paper discs made from newspaper, black paper and white paper and lay the discs on a sheet of newspaper, then use forceps (simulated bird beak) to pick up as many paper discs as possible in two minutes. Collate and analyse data. Modify the modelling activity by replacing the forceps with different types of pincers to represent different types of bird beaks.
• Form a hypothesis and design and conduct an experiment to investigate the effects of changing environmental conditions on the expression of a trait (for example, light on genetically modified barley). Draw conclusions from the results obtained. Identify experimental design strengths and limitations. Suggest modifications to improve experimental design and/or further experiments as an extension.
• Analyse a case study using web-sourced material, maps and second-hand population data to show how natural selection over many generations can result in changes that lead to a new species.
• Construct hypotheses for the effects of different selection pressures on gene frequencies in a model population. Conduct modelling exercises to test the hypotheses and draw conclusions from the data gathered. Population modelling simulations can be found and modified at Biology Simulations.
  
• Interactively explore the outcomes of mutations in humans and animals at Learn Genetics.
  
• Access the Human Body Systems Disorder Project at the NGSS Life Science website and search for 'Human body systems disorder project'. Undertake bioinformatics searches through BLAST to compare the DNA codes of real genes and to explore how mutated proteins affect cells, organs and systems, thereby impacting on homeostasis.
• Analyse case study descriptions and associated secondary data related to population change for a particular species.
• Investigate why ‘antibiotic resistance is one of the biggest threats to global health, food security, and development today’ (World Health Organization) and the challenges this creates.
• Visit The Antimicrobial Resistance Strategy to consider Victoria’s response to antimicrobial resistance and answer the question ‘What is CPE and why it is a threat to our health?’
• Using the example of influenza, create a storyboard and/or animation to model viral antigenic drift, using textbook and/or online text and images to construct a student-designed representation, informed from class activities, teacher feedback and collaborative group discussions. Explain ongoing challenges for treatment strategies and vaccinations. Propose possible alternatives or solutions. Useful resources: Medical Journal of Australia, the History of Vaccines, the Australian Government Department of Health, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention.
• Access evolution-related activities at NOVA online and work in self-selected groups to undertake various activities. Record results in logbooks and report a summary of findings back to the class.
• Model the concept of geological time by marking out the geological periods and then signposting the significant biological events using a scale of 1 metre is equal to 450,000,000 years. Alternatively, model the geobiological timescale in he form of a calendar year or a 24 hour day.
  
• Examine types of fossils in commercially simulated fossil sets or conduct a field excursion to search for fossils at an appropriate site.
• Create an infographic describing allopatric speciation using the Galapagos finches as an example.
• Collect and process information to design a multimedia presentation and/or model and/or infographic that details the different types of evidence for evolution, as evidenced from the fossil record, and include visual representations for each type.
• Describe two selective pressures that act to develop the ‘limpet’ shaped shell with reference to the following scenario: Cellana tramoserica, the Variegated Limpet, is a current mollusc species found on sedimentary rocks near shorelines; the ‘limpet’ shape has developed many times during snail evolution; the occurrence of this shell shape in the fossil records indicates a similar environment might have existed to that which we see on the shoreline today.
• Interpret the evidence for sympatric speciation in the following case study of Howea palms on Lord Howe Island. Useful resources: Nature, Science Direct. Discuss why there is controversy.
• Use molecular homology to infer evolutionary relatedness between species.
• Visit Ecolinc to investigate how DNA and amino acid sequences can be used as evidence for the relatedness between species.
  
• Create a phylogenetic tree from DNA sequences by accessing online programs such as the article, ‘Creating Phylogenetic Trees from DNA Sequences on the HHMI BioInteractive website.
• Undertake the activity ‘Reconstruct a Skull’ at the STEM-Works website.
• Measure height and lengths of femur, humerus and radius in centimetres to determine how well predictions match reality (calculations of height from femur can be made by applying the formula 2.38 x femur length + 61.41 = height ± 3.27 cm; calculations of height from humerus can be made by applying the formula 3.08 x humerus length + 70.45 = height ± 4.05 cm; calculations of height from radius can be made by applying the formula 3.78 x radius length + 79.01 = height ± 4.32 cm). Compare expected and actual heights and suggest reasons for any variations. Collate class results to plot predicted height versus actual height and comment on patterns and/or trends in the data. Determine whether there is a mathematical relationship between predicted height versus actual height and comment on whether the formulas for predicting height from bone length enable accurate predictions to be made. Refer to the data to discuss the difference between accuracy and precision.
• Crumple a sheet of paper in the hand to form a ‘clot’ approximating a sphere and measure its diameter. Collate class data to plot a histogram of clot diameters and account for the shape of the histogram. Identify and distinguish between sources of error and uncertainty. Use the results to discuss the difference between accuracy, precision, repeatability and reproducibility. Explain how this activity is relevant to the work of palaeobiologists involved in recording measurements in hominin remains and drawing inferences about relatedness.
• Determine the maximum precision of length measurement with a steel ruler. Discuss the significance of precision in measurements of biological phenomena. Use an example to explain how variability in measurement of length of skull features may affect conclusions about species relatedness.
  
• Access DNA or protein sequences from public databases (for example, Genbank–NCBI). Use sequence alignment programs (for example, ClustalW) to identify and quantify allelic variation within a population or variation between different populations or species. Visually represent the variation as a phylogenetic tree.
• Participate in an excursion to Zoos Victoria to photograph/record features of different primates.
• Interpret phylogenetic trees to describe the evolutionary relationships between modern humans and other living or extinct primates.
• Identify the structural features of a set of hominin skulls from Australopithecus to Homo sapiens noting the trends over time. Make inferences about the diet and cognitive development of each species.
  
• Use collected data, including images, to examine the characteristics of Ardipithecus ramidus to evaluate its classification as a hominin.
• Access media articles related to the contestability of classifications within the human fossil record based on new evidence; for example, classification of hobbit fossils.
• Read the article, ‘Licking a fossil to determine it’s age’ on the AEON website and work in groups to consider the following. Make evidence-based decisions.
  
  • What are some issues with identifying and dating fossils? How might they be overcome?
  • Consider the credibility information contained within the article (such as fairness, factual, non-bias, accuracy, trustworthy, telling the whole story).
• Consider the question: ‘Did Homo neanderthalensis and Homo sapiens interbreed?’ and statement: ‘Denisovians – an ancient population of humans’. Discuss evidence for both, using information at the Australian Museum, Nature and The Conversation.
• Discuss the development of opposable thumbs as an adaptation, and its contribution to cultural evolution, through an investigation comparing the use of free hands compared with hands with thumbs taped to index fingers. Consider the ability to perform everyday tasks such as combing hair, tying a knot, tying shoelaces, drinking a glass of water, reading a book, painting, hammering a nail into wood, typing and texting.
• Consider the differing interpretations of the migration of modern human populations around the world. Link the fossil and DNA evidence for an earlier and more recent model. Gather and analyse a range of secondary data to make evidence-based decisions. Useful resources: the Australian Museum (When and where did our species originate?), National Geographic, Cosmos Magazine, Nature, Science Daily, ABC Education.
• Outline the findings from Australia’s study of mitochondrial DNA from Indigenous Australians, specifically their migration patterns, connection to Country, possible impact of the findings and areas for further research. Useful sources: LaTrobe University and ABC Education.
• 
  Create, use and interpret phylogenetic trees to show evidence of the relatedness between species, including structural morphology, homologous structures and molecular homology.
  

Detailed example

Classification and Identification – What are phylogenetic trees and how are they used to show evidence of relatedness between species?

Classification is the arrangement of phenomena, objects or events into manageable sets, whereas identification is a process of recognition of phenomena as belonging to particular sets or possibly being part of a new or unique set.

As adapted from: Contemporary VCE Biology

Aims

Create, use and interpret phylogenetic trees to show evidence of the relatedness between species, including structural morphology, homologous structures and molecular homology.

Explore consequences of viral antigenic drift and shift in terms of ongoing challenges for viral identification and treatment strategies in the context of the novel corona virus.

Key science skills

Identify, inform and teach students a selection of key science skills that are embedded in the task.

Teacher background information

Phylogeny is the study of evolutionary relationships between organisms. It is best represented through diagrams called phylogenetic trees, which evidence relatedness between species and the presence of common ancestors. Teaching phylogeny can often be challenging, since concepts such as geological time and geographical changes on Earth are usually hard to comprehend. Using interactives can support teaching and student learning, with specific learning outcomes and/or discussion points identified (for example, EarthViewer on the HHMI BioIneractive website.

Unsurprisingly, there are several misconceptions around evolution, caused both by intuitive thinking and widespread misleading representations of evolutionary processes. Ballen & Greene (2017) argue that teaching about biodiversity using the traditional Linnaean rank-based approach (dividing organisms into Kingdom, Phyla, Class and so on) can potentially disseminate some of these misconceptions, since it omits evolutionary innovations and inaccurately portrays history. Instead, the authors defend the use of the clade-based approach, which teaches about biodiversity using phylogenetic trees.

Misconceptions – ‘Trees not ladders’ on the Berkely University website.

Understanding evolution – Phylogenetics on the Berkely University website.

Activity 1: Which information would you use to group organisms?

To assess students’ prior knowledge, choose five organisms and promote a whole-class discussion on which sources of data could be valuable when determining relatedness between species.

For example, when comparing mammals, would the coat-colour be a relevant trait? Or perhaps the eating habits (herbivore, carnivore)? Which characteristics matter more when grouping organisms and why? How would you know if a black panther is more closely related to a black bear than to a tiger?

Extending on this discussion, challenge students to represent the relatedness between the chosen organisms, with an explanation of their diagram. As an alternative to the whole-class discussion, separate students into small groups to develop their ideas and compare diagrams. Students suggest why there are different diagrams and what further information may be needed. Students note diagrams and reflections in their logbook.

Activity 2: Evolutionary researchers – what do they do?

What does an evolutionary researcher do, what data is needed and why do this work? (Resource: Phylogeny on the Contemporary VCE Biology website)

Students consider and document their opinions, knowledge and wonderings before and after listening to the work of Dr Matthew Symond, evolutionary researcher from Deakin University, discussing biogeography, ethnobotany and phylogenetic trees.

What did they learn? How has their opinions and knowledge changed? Compare with other students. What else did they learn? What more do they want to know?

Activity 3: Building phylogenetic trees – using pictures, structural morphology and molecular data

Evolutionary researchers from Deakin University (Dr Matthew Symond and his PhD student Uday Sundara) discuss phylogeny, describing the types of data used for reconstructing phylogenetic trees, how accurate these representations can be and some of the complexities involved in the process of reconstructing evolutionary history. The two researchers go on to give examples of phylogenetic trees they generated in their lab, and comment on the differences between morphological and molecular data as evidence of relatedness between species. (Resource: Phylogeny on the Contemporary VCE Biology website)

Students watch the video ‘Evidence for Relatedness’ and document their understanding using multimodal representation such as a mind map, drawings and/or text. Students write down further wonderings and/or highlight where they may need further clarification.

• Building a phylogenetic tree using structural morphology. Use the ‘Sorting Seashells’ page of the HHMI BioInteractive website.

This biointeractive builds on the knowledge of creating phylogenetic trees and uses structural morphology to sort a range of seashells.

• Building a phylogenetic tree using molecular data. Use the ‘Creating Phylogenetic Trees from DNA Sequences page on the HHMI BioInteractive website.

This biointeractive builds on the knowledge of creating phylogenetic trees and uses molecular data to sort a range of seashells.

Outcome 3

On completion of this unit the student should be able to design and conduct a scientific investigation related to cellular processes and/or how life changes and responds to challenges, and present an aim, methodology and methods, results, discussion and a conclusion in a scientific poster.

Examples of learning activities

The following questions are a sample of student-designed practical investigations that may be considered:

• How do elevated CO2 levels in the atmosphere or in aquatic environments affect the rate of photosynthesis in plants?
• What is the effect of using incandescent, fluorescent, halogen or black light on the rate of photosynthesis in plants?
• Does using flashing or ‘disco’ lights affect the rate of photosynthesis in plants?
• What is the effect of changing pH levels or phosphate levels on the photosynthetic or cellular respiration rates of aquatic plants?
• Does photosynthetic and/or cellular respiration activity change with the age of the organism?
  
• Does the rate of cellular respiration change in different seasons?
• Is the DNA from fruit different from the DNA of vegetables?
  
• Does the DNA extracted from fresh, frozen, dried, pickled or tinned forms of a particular fruit or vegetable differ?
• Does the type of reagent (detergent, alcohol or salt) affect DNA extraction yield?

Detailed example

See suggested approaches for developing the Unit 4 Outcome 3 Student-designed Practical Investigation under ‘Assessment Advice’.