Unit 2 – Area of Study 3: Techniques of reasoning

Outcome 3:

Apply methods of philosophical inquiry to the analysis and evaluation of philosophical viewpoints and arguments, including those in value theory.

Examples of learning activities

• 
  Conduct a class discussion on the value of reflective equilibrium.
  
  
• Explore modern symbolic logic and rules of inference. The Philosophy Pages website could be referenced for resources such as 'Rules of Inference'.
• Explore Categorical logic (Aristotelean logic) and discuss its usefulness today. A useful website is the Philosophy Pages website webpage on 'Categorical Syllogisms'.
• Using a software program such as Rationale, compose, analyse and evaluate an argument that responds to one of the key questions associated with a chosen value theory problem and discuss the outcomes of the exercise in class. The Critical Thinking on the Web webpage; 'Argument Mapping' has a number of relevant links to software.
• Draft a written test on logical equivalences with a set of answers. Give this to another student to complete and then check the answers.
• Produce a written response to a set question associated with a chosen value theory problem, and use standard form argument to assist in planning the response and then checking its coherence.
• Read a text associated with a chosen value theory problem. Identify and discuss how techniques of philosophical reasoning are being used to construct arguments.
• Create a set of posters that display common fallacies in an appealing way.
• Using hypertext, analyse and evaluate a piece of philosophical writing related to a chosen value theory problem, using terminology associated with philosophical reasoning. As an extension, link examples of reasoning to an appropriate webpage that discusses the logical structure of the argument.
• Discuss whether there is a role for emotion in philosophical thinking. For example, does a (true) conclusion derived by an emotional response have the same status as a conclusion derived by logic?
• 
  Write a reflection on the role and value of philosophical reasoning in persuading someone about an issue in moral and political philosophy.
• Complete a written analysis on the relationship between reason and experience, and deduction and induction in philosophical reasoning.
• Construct and justify analogies for inductive and deductive thinking, including where the analogy breaks down; for example, the scientist and detective.
• On a large piece of paper, map the structure of a piece of philosophical writing associated with a chosen value theory problem. Identify the premises, conclusions, assumptions, analogies, examples, counter-examples and so on, and use as a basis for critical analysis.
• Find a range of current media articles or tweets related to value theory, with at least one containing a fallacy. In a forum such as a Philosothon, discuss the articles, including a discussion on the logical error and its impact on the conclusion of the article.
• Using a thinking tool such as a Venn Diagram, consider the difference between 'is' and 'ought', and discuss whether the distinction is valid. For reference, consider arguments used by David Hume or GE Moore (for example).

 

Detailed example 1

Reflective equilibrium: adjusting and modifying principles

Context:

In 1971, John Rawls coined the term 'reflective equilibrium' to explain and elucidate 'a state of balance or coherence among a set of beliefs arrived at by a process of deliberative mutual adjustment among general principles and particular judgments'.

As an example of reflective equilibrium, students consider how Western colonialists identified and resolved the logical inconsistencies in their prevailing moral codes between owning slaves, espousing democracy and universal human rights. Slavery and other 'isms' (e.g. sexism, racism and ageism) are useful for highlighting hypocritical attitudes from already established and contrasting moral principles. The method of reflective equilibrium requires us to seek coherence between our set of beliefs by making adjustments and modifications to our justifications from a principled position that we want to hold on to.

Activity:

Use the method of 'reflective equilibrium' to explore the aligning of experience and facts with a sense of justice. Students find an historical case where they illustrate and discuss how the method of equilibrium can be used to reconcile the nature of the case with a sense of justice.

An alternative approach is to ask the class to imagine they were a parliament and that they had a conscience vote on a current issue; for example, organ donation, treatment of refugees or the definition of marriage. How could the method of equilibrium be used to assist in reaching a position? Students test this through role-playing a debate on a selected issue and reflecting on the process they used to come to a final position.​

 

Detailed example 2

The role of reasoning in moral and political philosophy

Visit the website 'Michael Sandel on Justice: A Journey in Moral Reasoning'​. It contains lecture extracts on moral and political philosophers from 'A Journey in Moral Reasoning' by Michael J Sandel. While watching the clip, students reflect on the role of reasoning in building a strong case, including philosophical inquiry techniques such as analogy (in the clip, the analogy between playing a flute and political office) in grappling with contemporary moral and judicial issues. This could include a comparison between the persuasive power of logic and the persuasive power of anecdotes. The clip is divided into different sections and students could work in small groups on one section and then discuss their findings with another group. Students watch their designated section twice, once for the moral and political philosophy and once for the reasoning involved.