Planning

Each outcome in VCE Chemistry draws on a set of key science skills listed on pages 11 and 12 of the study design. The development, demonstration and application of the key science skills must be integrated into a teaching and assessment program and applied in a variety of contexts including through practical work. A number of approaches to teaching and learning can support the development, demonstration and application of key science skills, including a focus on inquiry where students pose questions, explore scientific ideas, draw evidence-based conclusions and propose solutions to problems. An appropriate balance of theoretical and practical activities should be included in teaching and assessment programs.

Students should be expected to demonstrate progressively higher skill levels across Units 1 to 4. Teachers are encouraged to map the specific teaching and assessment of the Units 1–4 Chemistry skills across all units, ensuring that all key science skills are covered in the delivery of a program of study and that skills are covered at progressively higher levels. Making explicit to students when and how they are developing each of the Units 1–4 Chemistry skills can also facilitate student-directed learning and encourage students to self-monitor their successful achievement of each skill.

To assist in planning, teachers may access the VCE Chemistry Units 1 and 2 key science skills mapping grid and the VCE Chemistry Units 3 and 4 key science skills mapping grid. Examples of teaching and learning activities that include the development, demonstration and application of key science skills integrated into key knowledge have been provided in the Teaching and learning activities and in the Sample teaching plans.

Literacy in VCE Chemistry

VCE Chemistry requires students to decode and use precise scientific language to develop and demonstrate their understanding of complex chemical phenomena. According to Johnstone (1991), chemistry students need to be able to think, talk and write about these phenomena on three interrelated levels: what they see (macroscopic – the observable physical and chemical properties); what they don’t see (sub-microscopic – the models of atomic and sub-atomic interactions); and how it is represented (symbolic – how chemists communicate, describe, and explain chemical ideas). Furthermore, these phenomena are often contextualised in real-world applications and sense-making becomes increasingly complex.

To assist students in developing the multi-literacy skills required to understand and explain the chemical concepts in this way, teachers can introduce students to information sources that include a range of ‘modes’ such as diagrams, tables, graphs, photographs, video sequences, simulations, and text that describe and explain chemical phenomena. Teachers can support students’ multi-modal literacies by unpacking the unique characteristics of each mode, explicitly identifying which of Johnstone’s level(s) a particular mode represents (macroscopic, sub-microscopic, and / or symbolic), and articulate how modes overlap to create a more comprehensive picture of a chemical concept.

Further strategies for supporting student literacy in chemistry include:

• explicit vocabulary instruction using meaningful learning activities in a variety of contexts. For further explanation and a series of ideas click here.
• modelling reading and meaning-making approaches for different types of texts and modes. This is best achieved through a ‘Think Aloud’ where the teacher reads the text with the class and articulates their thinking as they are comprehending the text. For a more detailed explanation of this literacy strategy click here.
• providing students with opportunities to read, view, write, speak and listen to a wide range of texts and media to source and compare information, including traditional textbooks and online journals in addition to news websites and blogs, videos and social media channels. For content curated for students, good resources include Science News for Students - Chemistry and ChemMatters Magazine.
• encouraging students to generate representations and explanations to illustrate their thinking. This is likely to require explicit scaffolding to start with. Consider developing routines or protocols for different types of representations and explanations. One example is the PRO instructional strategy for scientific explanations (see Tang (2015) The PRO instructional strategy in the construction of scientific explanations. Teaching Science, 61(4), pages 14–21, or gain free access here.   
• guiding and collaborating with students to construct different scientific explanations, illustrations, and data representations, enabling students to compare and evaluate information from different sources to understand how ideas can be represented in different ways and to distinguish between scientific and non-scientific ideas.

Scientific literacy

Scientific literacy refers to peoples’ understanding of scientific concepts, phenomena and processes, and their ability to apply this knowledge to new and, at times, non-scientific situations (PISA, 2018). This involves students:

• being curious and asking, investigating or determining answers to questions generated from their observations about everyday experiences
• describing, explaining, hypothesising and making predictions about scientific phenomena
• critically evaluating the quality of scientific information and data on the basis of its source and the methods used to generate it
• identifying scientific issues underlying local, national and global issues and decisions, and expressing their own views that are based on scientific and technological understanding
• understanding and evaluating articles about science in the public domain and discussing the validity of the conclusions
• proposing arguments based on evidence and drawing valid conclusions from data.

Strategies for supporting students’ development of scientific literacy include:

• incorporating discussion and debate about contentious local and global chemical issues when teaching chemical concepts. Thinking routines can help students unpack issues. Examples of these can be found here.
• critiquing sources of chemical information, including data, published in the public domain using an evaluation tool like the one presented in the table below.

• taking a problem-based approach to teaching a chemical concept. As part of their learning, students must acquire knowledge to develop a viable solution to the problem.

• creating opportunities for students to develop their scientific argumentation skills. This requires students to use evidence to support their arguments. A helpful tool can be found here.

Johnstone, AH (1991) Why is science difficult to learn? Things are seldom what they seem. Journal of Computer Assisted Learning, 7, 75-83.

Teachers are advised to provide students with learning opportunities that allow them to critically evaluate the stories, claims, discoveries and inventions about chemistry they hear and read in the media and to examine the relevance of science in their everyday lives. New and innovative contemporary research and ideas have been infused throughout the Teaching and learning activities.

Aspects of VCE Chemistry should be delivered in part through local, national and global case studies or examples of socio-scientific issues that illustrate how chemical issues and challenges are addressed. This contextual approach to teaching chemistry concepts applies across all Units 1–4 as a basis for exploring the key knowledge and developing the key science skills. Inclusion of contemporary examples exploring socio-scientific issues and the facilitation of interactions with scientists and their scientific research allows students to appreciate the values and ethics of becoming a scientist and may lead them to consider science careers.

Examples of how students can make links between scientific concepts studied across Units 1 to 4 and relevant socio-scientific issues they may encounter in the media can be found at: Examples of chemistry-based socio-scientific issues.

Sourcing contemporary chemical science issues

Contemporary chemical science issues, innovations, discussions, reports, research and technologies are accessible through the media or the internet. Relevant, authentic information facilitates the teaching of many aspects of the VCE Chemistry Study Design. Teachers may also adapt scenarios, reports and research to create assessment tasks, where students are expected to apply their understanding of chemistry concepts in novel contexts.

Although original chemistry research reports are accessible, many require subscription and most are written for a research audience. However, more journals now offer open access, which means there are articles that could be easily adapted for school audiences. For secondary school purposes, teachers and students may access reports, videos and summaries of contemporary chemistry research and expert commentary through popular science journals (for example, Cosmos, The Scientist, Nature, New Scientist and Scientific American) and online science media outlets where areas of interest can be filtered (for example Nature Briefing, ScienceAlert and Science Daily). Some journals, such as the European Journal for Science Teachers, have open-access websites where cutting-edge science and real-world applications are explained for a teacher audience, to assist in understanding the context, and providing resources and teaching materials that will inspire students.

There are also extensive teaching and curriculum resources for chemistry educators at Beyond Benign, and RSCs Education in Chemistry. The University of Michigan Center for Sustainable Systems has compiled a collection of STEM resources for primary and secondary schools, sorted by key sustainability topics, including material use, green IT, climate change and waste water. A range of other science organisations, such as ABC Science, CSIRO and Museums Victoria, also provide access to contemporary scientific research via email subscription.

The Lawrence Hall of Science, University of California, has produced the Science Education for Public Understanding Program (SEPUP) including a number of modules specifically around socio-scientific and contemporary chemical science issues. Each module has resources for both teachers and students, including videos and interactive simulations. Modules of particular relevance to VCE Chemistry Units 1–4 include:

• Investigating Alternative Energy: Hydrogen & Fuel Cells
• Investigating Wastewater: Solutions and Pollution
• Waste Disposal: Computers and the Environment

Regular media sources, such as podcasts (for example, the RACI ‘Chemically Speaking Podcast’) and webinars, enable students to communicate with scientists, enabling students to see the passion and skills scientists have for their field / research. Scientists may discuss the practical challenges and solutions (if available) and the potential of their research or project findings.

Adapting contemporary scientific research and innovations for learning and assessment

Chemistry research and innovations can be used in a variety of ways. Students can read and review the purpose, design, findings and interpretations of the selected research. Students can explore new chemistry technologies and innovations. Media reports or research communications provide adequate details for this to occur. Academic research articles can be sourced online and the abstract, findings and conclusions are often suitable for student interpretation.

Teachers should consider the following when adapting contemporary scientific research or media reports for classroom use:

• Review information source: check the science, check the suitability for students, check the readability for students, check the availability (how will this medium be shared with students?). Teachers may need to edit the information source to make the readability and length manageable for students to access.
• Decide how to use the information source in the teaching and learning sequence: as a hook into a new topic (exploring new chemical ideas), as a comparison to known information (for example, a new application of included key knowledge), as an example of high-quality investigation design or analysis strategies, or as secondary data for analysis and interpretation.
• Guide students to review information communications, checking reliability and authenticity while learning how to reference and acknowledge sources.

Teachers may adapt contemporary science research and reports to create assessment tasks (see the Assessment section of the Support materials; for example, a report of an application of chemical concepts to a real-life context, analysis and evaluation of a chemical innovation, research study, case study, socio-scientific issue, secondary data or a media communication, with reference to sustainability (green chemistry principles sustainable development and / or the transition to a circular economy), or an infographic. As the information sources are available in the public domain, schools must ensure that any assessment task developed is unique to the school and student cohort each year so that authentication risks are minimised. This may be achieved by selecting and adapting aspects of an information source as a basis for the stimulus materials used for the assessment task and / or altering type of assessment task generated from the stimulus material; for example, considering whether structured questions, a flow chart, an oral presentation or a sequence of PowerPoint slides may be appropriate for assessing the relevant key knowledge and key science skills. If assessment tasks are developed collaboratively between schools, then each school must modify the task sufficiently so that it differs from the task delivered at the other schools.

Student agency

The VCE Chemistry Study Design2023–2027 provides students with opportunities to develop and demonstrate student agency, particularly in Unit 1 Area of Study 3 where students choose to study an investigation topic of personal interest. Student agency represents the ability of students to play a central role in their own development (what they want to learn), practice (how they are learning what they want to learn), and reflection (metacognition or consideration of what they wanted to learn and how they wanted to learn it). A common expression associated with student agency is ‘voice and choice’, which emphasises when students are being active stakeholders in their own learning. Further information about student agency can be found here.

Problem-based learning

A problem-based learning approach is conducive to linking various scientific concepts and skills to examine science-based issues in society. This approach focuses on open-ended questions or tasks, provides authentic contexts for exploring chemistry ideas, emphasises student independence and inquiry, and builds capabilities including critical and creative thinking, ethical understanding, and individual and collaborative scientific endeavour.

Scenarios can be developed from actual case studies reported in scientific journals, from local scenarios and issues, or from a fictional case study or scenario. A problem-based learning approach can also be used to develop specific key science skills. The key science skills selected should link to relevant chemistry content.

The following steps are useful when using a problem-based learning approach:

Step 1: Define the question/scenario / problem carefully: what are you trying to find out?

Step 2: Refine the question / explore possible options: use group or class brainstorming to generate ideas.

Step 3: Plan the actual investigation/narrow your choices: may require group or class consensus.

Step 4: Test ideas and obtain further information: use experiments to generate primary data or use a literature review to collate relevant secondary data.

Step 5: Write a conclusion that draws upon discussions / research / experiments.

Problem-based scenarios do not necessarily have a single solution. Class problem-based learning can be used to generate different questions for students to investigate, particularly for experimental investigations.

Examples of two problem-based learning approaches as an inclusion in a teaching and learning program are available at: Examples of problem-based learning approaches in VCE Chemistry. The first example relates to examining science-based issues in society and supports students in developing their problem-solving skills in responding to the issue of whether an insurance claim could be settled on the basis of a chemical understanding of the structure of a diamond and whether it can shatter. The second example shows how the key science skill of developing a hypothesis can be structured by addressing the question, ‘What factors affect crystallisation?’.

Socratic seminars

Socratic seminars, also called Socratic circles, are based on Socrates’s belief in the power of asking questions; inquiry is prized over information, and discussion over debate. Socratic seminars are characterised by the inclusion of open-ended questions to inspire thinking. They are structured, dialogic and student-driven discussions with the teacher acting as guide and facilitator rather than as a ‘sage on a stage’. They reflect the highly social nature of learning and align with the work of John Dewey, Lev Vygotsky, Jean Piaget, and Paulo Friere. Socratic seminars support student agency and, while there are suggestions in the educational literature as to how to run them in the classroom, teachers may adapt them for their own purposes. An example of the use of a modified Socratic seminar approach to teaching is provided in Detailed example 4 in the Unit 1 Area of Study 3 learning activities.

Questions that draw out the completeness and accuracy of students’ thinking include those that:

• clarify concepts, for example: What does this mean? Can you give an example?
• probe assumptions, for example: What can be assumed? What would happen if…?
• probe rationale, reasons and / or evidence, for example: What evidence is there to support your statement?
• question viewpoints and perspectives, for example: Who benefits from this? Why is it better than or different from…?
• probe implications and consequences, for example: Do these data make sense? What are the consequences of that assumption?
• question the original question, for example: Why is the question important?

Practical work is a central component of learning and assessment in each unit. It includes a range of activities and is also used for a range of purposes, for example:

• developing observational skills
• introducing and / or consolidating a concept or idea to help students in the process of knowledge construction
• developing practical, manipulative laboratory skills and fieldwork skills
• developing science inquiry skills to enable students to construct evidence-based arguments
• developing understanding and experience of the nature of science and how scientists work.

Practical activities play an important role in developing 21st-century transferrable skills and capabilities, with post-secondary educational institutions and future employers looking for critical thinkers who can problem-solve. Practical activities may also be used to develop assessment tasks such as the production of a scientific report or poster based on logbook records, reflective annotations from a logbook of practical activities and the analysis of data / results, including appropriate graphical representations and formulation of generalisations and conclusions.

A ‘practical activity’ refers to any teaching and learning activity, which at some point involves students observing or manipulating the objects and materials they are exploring. The observation or manipulation of objects might take place in a school laboratory but could also occur in out-of-school settings such as the student’s home or in the field. Practical activities are not limited to experiments, as this often relates to the testing of a prior hypothesis. While some practical work is of this form, other examples are not. The methodologies listed on page 13 of the VCE Chemistry Study Design include those that provide opportunities for a range of practical activities to be undertaken across Units 1–4, specifically: classification and identification; experiments; fieldwork; modelling; product, process or system development; and simulations.

The VCE Chemistry Study Design does not specify the methodologies, methods or materials required to complete practical activities since each school has a unique resourcing capacity. In addition, different methodologies may be better suited to the key knowledge and relevant key science skills in different areas of study. Teachers are advised to use the flexibility afforded in the study design to decide when students will develop, apply and demonstrate their understanding of each of the scientific investigation methodologies across Units 1 to 4.

Simulations, remote experiments and virtual experiments may be used as the basis for experiments where physical resources (for example, equipment, facilities or access to appropriate sites) are limited. Students may also be provided with sample experimental data, where physical resources are not available, so that students may represent the data in chart and / or graph form, analyse the results and report their conclusions.

As a guide, teachers should ensure that students undertake at least one practical activity for each sub-heading of key knowledge in each area of study.

The study of VCE Chemistry may require fieldwork or site tours. If using local, state or national parks for fieldwork, regulations regarding activities and the collection of samples should be checked and followed. Activities should be planned to create minimal impact on the environment under investigation. Alternatives to the collection of biotic and abiotic materials (for example, scientific drawings, photography, digital imaging and video capture) should be considered. Industrial sites, water and sewage treatment plants, research and development laboratories and chemistry laboratories will have special safety warnings and requirements that must be strictly followed, including that students wear the appropriate clothing and footwear.

The undertaking of fieldwork will be affected by availability of resources, physical conditions and accessibility of local ecosystems and weather conditions. It is important to consider these factors when sequencing learning activities.

Across Units 1–4, students learn about the structure, properties, behaviour and transformation of matter. This resonates with the approach of contemporary chemical science research and industry, where a variety of products are designed and developed through chemical processes that utilise knowledge of how matter behaves. However, in a world facing complex social, economic and environmental issues, chemistry-relevant research and industries have had to completely transform their approach to product design. There is now a societal expectation that products are designed to make best use of scarce feedstocks, and for their waste and by-products to be meaningfully recuperated into the design of other products.

Teachers are provided with opportunities in the VCE Chemistry Study Design to inspire, and to demonstrate to their students, humankind’s capacity to focus on practical solutions that can ensure a sustainable future for generations of multi-species, even in this Anthropocene epoch. VCE Chemistry teachers are well placed to demonstrate to students that many of these solutions are inherently connected to chemistry, as they involve applying knowledge of how matter can be transformed to make its use optimal and recyclable. Chemistry teachers can also show students that a career in chemistry today involves being at the forefront of how meaningful change and a sustainable future will be implemented.

Learning activities specific to sustainable development challenges

The United Nations has identified 17 Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) with 169 targets as a way to implement its 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development. Global society has taken meaningful steps toward meeting these 17 goals that address current global challenges. While chemistry is involved in some way in all of these goals, page 20 of the VCE Chemistry Study Design lists the nine goals that have direct relevance to various concepts across Units 1 to 4. Narratives for these nine SDGs can be embedded within teaching and learning activities. Examples can be accessed at: Examples of learning activities specific to sustainable development challenges. While each learning activity is listed against one SDG, all activities can be linked to more than one SDG.

Learning activities specific to green chemistry principles

Green chemistry is the design of new chemical products and manufacturing processes that are safer and more sustainable than traditionally used products and processes. It is underpinned by a set of 12 principles, developed by Paul T Anastas and John C Warner in 1991, that aim to minimise the impact of the product or process on the environment. The principles of green chemistry therefore overlap significantly with the contexts and real-world applications addressing the United Nations’ sustainable development goals (SDGs) outlined above.

These principles have featured in past Unit 1–4 VCE Chemistry study designs as well as in other international curricula, and numerous resources over the years have been prepared to support teachers to integrate green chemistry into student learning. One such example is a list of collated videos for specific green chemistry principles prepared by a team of researchers from Yale University (US) in collaboration with Paul Anastas.

Seven of the 12 green chemistry principles have been identified as particularly relevant to the VCE Chemistry Study Design 2023–2027. The table at Examples of learning activities specific to green chemistry principles provides examples of learning activities, focusing on those that are practical and hands-on, and that have been designed and tested by green chemistry curriculum researchers worldwide. While each activity is listed next to only one green chemistry principle, all activities address more than one of the 12 green chemistry principles.

Learning activities specific to the circular economy

As a collective strategy used by society and industry, implementing the circular economy has been proposed as a means to transition away from a linear economy (take – make – distribute – use – dispose). In contrast, a circular economy involves a continuous cycle that focuses on the optimal use and re-use of a resource. It begins with the extraction of raw materials and the production of new materials, followed by consumption and re-purposing of unused and waste materials.

Many of the chemistry-relevant approaches being implemented in society and industry to address the Sustainable Development Goals (for example, responsible consumption and production) and to apply green chemistry principles to the production of materials (for example, design for energy efficiency, prevention of waste, use of renewable feedstocks) align perfectly with the implementation of the circular economy. When students are undertaking practical or non-practical inquiries relevant to the SDGs or the green chemistry principles, they will also be learning about how chemistry is positively contributing to the implementation of the circular economy.

Aligned with the contexts, real-world applications and practical activities outlined in examples of learning activities relevant to the Sustainability Development Goals and the green chemistry principles, further learning activities explicit to the circular economy are outlined in Examples of learning activities specific to the circular economy.

To collaborate respectfully and meaningfully with Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander communities, local protocols and agreements are required to determine how Koorie knowledge and data can be accessed, shared and used. The study design provides guidance and web links to relevant resources related to protocols. The Traditional Owners can be identified for any location in Victoria while the map for Australian locations may be used. 

Teachers are encouraged to include Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander knowledge and perspectives in the design and delivery of teaching and learning programs related to VCE Chemistry. VAEAI is the peak Koorie community organisation for education and training in Victoria. VAEAI has produced the Protocols for Koorie Education in Victorian schools to support teachers and students to learn about local, regional, state and national and international Indigenous perspectives.

The VCAA has prepared on-demand video recordings for VCE teachers and leaders as part of the Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Perspectives in the VCE webinar program held in 2023 which was presented with the Victorian Aboriginal Education Association Inc. (VAEAI) and the Department of Education (DE) Koorie Outcomes Division.

Lisa Daly from Cultural Minds provides some useful advice when considering how to include Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander perspectives in VCE Chemistry ‘…It is important to understand there is a distinct difference between teaching Aboriginal culture and teaching about Aboriginal culture. It is not appropriate for a non-Aboriginal person to teach Aboriginal culture, that is the traditional or sacred knowledge and systems belonging to Aboriginal people. For these kinds of teaching and learning experiences it is essential to consult and collaborate with members of your local Aboriginal or Torres Strait Islander community. It is appropriate however, for a non-Aboriginal person to teach about Indigenous Australia, its history and its people in much the same way as a teacher of non-German heritage might teach about Germany, its history and its people…As teachers, the onus is on us to learn about Indigenous Australia, in just the same way we inform ourselves about any other subject we teach…’

VAEAI Cultural Understanding and Safety Training (CUST) is a useful professional learning activity for teachers to undertake when considering how they may best include Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander perspectives in VCE Chemistry.

Other resources when considering Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander perspectives:

Aboriginal Victoria, Culture Victoria, Museums Victoria, Australian National Herbarium, Department of Environment, Water, Land and Planning (DEWLP)  Aboriginal Water Program and Forest Fire Management Victoria.

There will also be Aboriginal and Torres Straits Islander knowledge, culture and perspectives that are appropriate to include and consider from other states in terms of a national Australian context, or other Indigenous perspectives from other countries that are appropriate from an international context.

Teachers may consider referring to examples of Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander people’s knowledge of bush medicines and application of acid / base techniques to illustrate concepts involving organic chemistry, acid / base concepts such as neutralisation, and chemical reactions such as fermentation, combustion and calcination. Examples include:

• the use of saponins to make soap or to stun fish in order to obtain food
• the treatment of poisonous plants (for example, cycads and nardoo) to produce food or medicine
• the use of Spinifex resin to make a strong glue
• production of new materials and chemicals; for example, quicklime (from calcium oxide), plaster (from calcium sulfate), and pigments and ochres (from iron oxide and charcoal).

The Support materials include a practical activity particularly suitable for Unit 1 Area of Study 1 where students make soap from acacia leaves (included as Detailed example 1 in the learning activities for Unit 1 and as an editable Word document including information about the background chemistry at Utilising the natural environment: making soap.

A PowerPoint presentation showing the testing of bush medicine (the Uncha plant) for bio-active substances as an equitable partnership between Aboriginal researchers and Western scientific researchers can be found at Investigating the chemistry of the Uncha plant and includes two videos (without sound) supplemented with Notes for teachers that show the use of a rotary evaporator and solvent partitioning as part of the research methods used.

When developing teaching and learning programs, teachers must consider:

• duty of care in relation to health and safety of students in practical work, investigations and excursions, including in the laboratory and when undertaking fieldwork
• legislative compliance (for example: chemical handling, storage and disposal; information privacy; copyright)
• sensitivity to cultural differences and personal beliefs (for example: discussions related to personal use of natural resources; stance on health and environmental issues)
• adherence to community standards and ethical guidelines (for example: respecting the confidentiality of industrial processes and / or data)
• respect for persons and differences in opinions
• debriefing students after completing learning activities (for example: after discussing or debating a chemical issue).

For more details regarding legislation and compliance, refer to pages 8 and 9 of the VCE Chemistry Study Design 2023–2027.

The VCE Chemistry study provides students with the opportunity to engage in a range of learning activities. In addition to demonstrating their understanding and mastery of the content and skills specific to the study, students may also develop employability skills through their learning activities.

The nationally agreed employability skills* are: Communication; Planning and organising; Teamwork; Problem solving; Self-management; Initiative and enterprise; Technology; and Learning.

*The employability skills are derived from the Employability Skills Framework (Employability Skills for the Future, 2002), developed by the Australian Chamber of Commerce and Industry and the Business Council of Australia, and published by the (former) Commonwealth Department of Education, Science and Training.

Curriculum framing questions in the study design

Scientific inquiry involves students asking or responding to a question by selecting an appropriate investigation methodology and developing a method to generate primary and / or secondary data, and then reporting findings in response to the question. It is an approach that enables students to discover and learn through their own or guided explorations in response to scientific questions.  The range of scientific investigation methodologies appropriate for VCE Chemistry is listed on page 13 of the study design.

The VCE ChemistryStudy Design is structured as a series of curriculum-framing questions that reflect the inquiry nature of the discipline. These questions are open-ended to enable students to engage in critical and creative thinking about the Chemistry concepts identified in the key knowledge and associated key science skills, and to encourage students to ask their own questions about what they are learning. In responding to these questions, students demonstrate their own conceptual links and the relevance of different concepts to practical applications.

Using a scientific inquiry approach enables students to:

• engage with science-based questions
• prioritise evidence in responding to questions
• formulate explanations from evidence
• connect explanations to scientific knowledge
• communicate and justify science-based explanations of concepts and phenomena.

Teachers are advised to use the flexibility provided by the structure of the study design in the choice of contexts, both local and global, and applications for enabling students to work scientifically and answer questions. Opportunities range from the entire class studying a particular context or application chosen by the teacher or agreed to by the class, through to students nominating their own choice of scenarios, research, case studies, fieldwork activities or ethical issues.

Students, at the end of a unit or on completion of an outcome, should be able to respond to the relevant curriculum framework questions. Teachers may consider using these as the basis for an assessment task.

Levels of student independence in scientific inquiry

Scientific inquiry can be scaffolded to support students in developing key science skills. The level of scaffolding selected will depend on factors such as students’ prior skills and the level of complexity of the investigation and / or the methodology and / or the method.

Five levels of scaffolding of scientific inquiry can be used:

• A confirmation / prescription inquiry involves students confirming a principle through an activity when the results are known in advance; students are provided with the question, method and results, and are required to confirm that the results are correct.
• In a structured inquiry, students investigate a teacher-presented question through a prescribed procedure; students generate an explanation supported by the evidence they have generated or collated.
• In a guided inquiry the teacher chooses the question for investigation; students work in one large group or several small groups to work with the teacher to decide how to proceed with the investigation. This type of inquiry facilitates the teaching of specific skills needed for future open-inquiry investigations. The solution to the guided inquiry should not be predictable.
• A coupled inquiry combines a guided inquiry investigation with an open inquiry investigation: the teacher chooses an initial question to investigate as a guided inquiry and students then build on the guided inquiry to develop an extension or linked investigation in a more student-centred open inquiry approach.
• An open inquiry most closely mirrors scientists' actual work and is a student-centred approach that begins with a student's question, followed by the student (or groups of students) designing and conducting an investigation or experiment and communicating results.

Investigations related to a particular topic may range from being a confirmation / prescription type inquiry through to an open inquiry, depending on student experience. Teachers may consider organising students into groups according to their level of experience so that targeted support can be provided to build students’ skills when undertaking and designing investigations.

The principles of the scientific method through fair testing and the design of controlled experiments are important in science but may not always enable students to understand scientific ideas or concepts, answer their questions or appreciate how scientists work and the nature of science. For VCE Chemistry, eight different scientific investigation methodologies to generate primary and / or secondary data may be used and have been outlined on page 13 of the study design.

Common to different scientific investigation methodologies are three key aspects that are central to the study design's inquiry focus:

• asking questions
• testing ideas
• using evidence.

Teachers should ensure that students are provided with opportunities to undertake each of the eight scientific investigation methodologies listed on page 13 of the study design across Units 1 to 4 so that students can evaluate when and why it is appropriate to use some and not others. Students should select and justify a selected methodology, and then determine an appropriate method and / or technique that will be used, in response to an investigation question or issue. The choice of scientific investigation methodology will be determined by the question under investigation. There should be congruence between the question under investigation and the chosen methodology. The selected method and associated data generation and collection techniques should also be congruent with the chosen methodology.

Some methodologies may be more widely used in VCE Chemistry than others – particularly controlled experiments, fieldwork, modelling and simulations – and will depend on the nature of the investigation.

For many investigation methodologies, an investigation question may not lend itself to having an accompanying hypothesis; in such cases students should work directly with their investigation questions.

Examples of teaching and learning activities that use different scientific methodologies have been provided in Examples of scientific methodologies applicable in VCE Chemistry. Further examples for each unit and area of study can be found in the Teaching and learning activities. Information related to the use of variables in chemistry can be found at Defining variables.

Some scientific practical investigations will be student-designed and / or adapted by students, depending on the outcome and the level of student experience in undertaking practical work. Teachers must approve all student practical investigations to be undertaken. Not all planned student investigations can proceed due to issues including safety, equipment availability, time constraints and / or management of large student numbers.

Due to the potential scope of scientific investigations, students must be practical and realistic when deciding on investigation topics. Teachers need to be equally pragmatic when counselling students about their choice of investigation topic and when guiding the student in the formulation of the investigation question. Appropriate teacher intervention not only minimises risks but also serves as important feedback for students. Schools should have in place approval mechanisms, either through ethics committees or approval authorities within the school, to ensure that students undertake appropriate research.

Scientific investigation phases

Regardless of the scientific investigation methodology chosen, planning and conducting a scientific investigation involves six distinct but interrelated phases. The following diagram shows the relationships between each phase in designing and undertaking scientific investigations:

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1. Investigation exploration phase – initiating inquiry

The selection of a suitable scientific inquiry topic, and the subsequent construction of a question or hypothesis for investigation, may be initiated in a number of ways including:

• from brainstorming
• through direct observation of, and curiosity about, an object, an event, phenomenon, a practical problem or a technological development
• as a result of anomalous or surprising investigation results
• as an extension of a previous inquiry
• from analysis of qualitative and / or quantitative data
• from research involving secondary data
• teachers providing a generic question that is refined by students
• teachers scaffolding the development of an appropriate testable hypothesis that students can adapt and investigate, with the level of scaffolding will be dependent on student experience in scientific inquiry.

In selecting a question or hypothesis for investigation, students may undertake relevant background reading or refer to previous investigations. Students should reference sources and provide appropriate acknowledgments.

There is no mandated VCE style for writing a hypothesis, although many students are familiar with an ‘If…then…because…’ style of hypothesis formulation.

Teachers should ensure that students do not proceed with an investigation question or hypothesis that is not testable or is impractical to investigate in terms of time or resources.

2.  Planning phase – methodology and method

Prior to undertaking an investigation, students should produce a plan in their logbooks that:

• outlines their reasons and interest in undertaking the investigation
• defines the chemistry concepts involved
• identifies the methodology
• outlines the methods / techniques that will be used, including an investigation procedure and risk management for the investigation  
• lists the materials and equipment required
• identifies and suggests how potential safety risks and anticipated problems can be managed
• outlines any ethical issues.

Students may also make predictions about investigation outcomes based on their existing knowledge and prior experiences.

Depending on the type of scientific inquiry, teachers may choose to model and / or guide students to complete any of the above aspects of investigation planning. Teachers should ensure that proposed investigations have an appropriate methodology and method. In some cases, modifications to the investigation plan may be required, or students may be directed to reconsider their original investigation question or hypothesis.

3.  Investigation phase – testing ideas

In the investigation, students will generate primary or collate secondary qualitative and / or quantitative data as evidence. Data can be derived from a number of sources including observations, laboratory experimentation, fieldwork, simulations, trials of designed and constructed artefacts, and local and / or global databases. During the investigation phase students should note any difficulties or problems encountered in generating and / or collating data. Data that is relevant to the investigation should be recorded in a form that enables subsequent interpretation, analysis and evaluation.

Depending on the type of scientific inquiry, teachers may choose to model and / or guide students to generate primary and / or collate secondary qualitative and / or quantitative data as evidence. In some cases, insufficient – or no – data may be obtained by students; for example, in investigations where the effect of changing the independent variable is not visible at a macroscopic scale or cannot be measured given the resolution of laboratory equipment. It may also be due to systematic errors such as not checking / calibrating / calibrating a data logger or nor zeroing a scale/balance when measuring the mass of objects. If the concentration of a standard solution is incorrectly recorded or incorrectly prepared, then results will also be affected and may not be repeatable or reproducible. The students may be directed back to revise their investigation plan or, if time does not permit, they may access other student data, or secondary data, relevant to their investigation.

4.  Processing phase – using evidence

Analysis, interpretation and evaluation of investigation data may identify evidence of patterns, trends or relationships and may subsequently lead to an explanation of the chemistry question being investigated. For VCE Chemistry, the analysis of experimental data requires consideration of:

• accuracy, precision, repeatability, reproducibility, resolution, true value and validity of measurements and experiments (see pages 18 and 19 of the study design under ‘Data and measurement’)
• errors, significant figures and the treatment of outliers (see page 19 of the study design under ‘Measurement errors, uncertainty, significant figures and outliers’).

Students consider the data generated and / or collated and make inferences from the data, report mistakes or problems encountered and how they were managed, and use evidence to answer the investigation question. They consider how appropriate their data is in a given context, evaluate the validity of the data and make reference to its repeatability and / or reproducibility. Uncertainties in measurements, including random and / or systematic errors and the treatment of any outliers in a set of data, should be identified and explained. In VCE Chemistry, uncertainty is considered only in qualitative terms.

For a scientific investigation where a hypothesis has been formulated, interpretation of the evidence will either support the hypothesis or refute it.

For investigations that include a prediction, students should comment on how their prediction compared with their results and attempt to account for differences.

In reaching a conclusion to an investigation question, students should identify any judgments and decisions that are not based on the evidence alone but involve broader environmental, social, political, economic and / or ethical factors.

5.  Reporting phase – sharing findings

When recording data and reporting findings, students should use correct scientific language and conventions, including the use of technical terms, standard notation and SI units.

The initial phases of the investigation (question construction, planning, investigation, analysis and evaluation) are recorded in the student logbook while the report of the investigation can take various forms including a written scientific report, a scientific poster or an oral or a multimodal presentation of the investigation findings.

Students should also be mindful of the audience for their communication. In general, students should write to an audience of their class peers.

6.  Further investigation phase – new directions

While some investigations may provide answers to questions of interest, others may lead the student to revising their original hypothesis or developing a new one. Almost all scientific investigations can lead to the generation of new questions that may be investigated as an extension of the original question or as a novel question that may require different methodologies, methods and / or techniques to be applied. The student-designed investigations in Unit 2 Area of Study 3 and Unit 4 Area of Study 3 may be developed or adapted from previously completed investigations (coupled investigations).

While the maintenance of a logbook is common scientific practice in recording primary data, the way that logbooks are used for VCE Chemistry purposes has been extended to include notetaking by students related to the collation of secondary data as well as supporting teachers to authenticate and assess student work.

The presentation format of the logbook is a school decision, and no specific format is prescribed. Its purposes may include:

• providing a basis for further learning; for example, contributing to class discussions about demonstrations, activities or practical work
• reporting on an experiment or activity
• responding to questions in a practical worksheet or problem-solving exercise
• writing up an experiment as a formal report or as the basis of a scientific poster
• planning for oral or other presentations.

Data contained in a student’s logbook may be qualitative and / or quantitative and may include the results of guided activities or investigations; planning notes for experiments; results of student-designed activities or investigations; personal reflections made during or at the conclusion of demonstrations, activities or investigations; simple observations made in short class activities; links to spreadsheet calculations and other student digital records and presentations; notes and electronic or other images taken on excursions; database extracts; web-based investigations and research, including online communications and results of simulations; surveys; interviews; and notes of any additional or supplementary work completed outside class.

The logbook may be maintained in hard copy or electronic format. For many schools, it may be easier to require that students maintain a hardcopy logbook to avoid falsification and / or alteration of results. All logbook entries must be dated and in chronological order. Investigation partners, expert advice and assistance and secondary data sources must be acknowledged and / or referenced in the logbook.

For Unit 4, Area of Study 3, the student’s logbook entries are assessed as well as their scientific poster.

For more information and advice regarding the assessment of Unit 4, Outcome 3, see Unit 3 and 4 assessment.

Scientific posters are widely used in academia, research and in the general scientific community as a visual means of communicating the outcomes of scientific investigations. They are not designed to simply replicate a scientific report in that they provide a different means by which science information is communicated, particularly to peers and the school community. Teachers may elect to include the requirement for an oral presentation to accompany a scientific poster. The use of QR codes to link poster sections to a complete practical report or to sections of the logbook may be used by some schools but is not compulsory. If QR codes are used in the Unit 4 Area of Study 3 scientific poster, the words do not count as part of the 600-word limit.

Design principles for scientific posters

Key design principles for effective scientific poster communication for the purposes of VCE Chemistry include:

• Logical sequencing and easy identification on the poster of the hypothesis or question, aim and conclusion and other key parts of the investigation.
• Inclusion of only the essential details for conveying what was done in the investigation and what was discovered (for example, only the key aspects of an experimental procedure should be outlined).
• Use of relevant visual aids (for example, tables, photographs, diagrams and graphs) to reduce the amount of text, thereby avoiding overcrowding of the poster.
• Use of font, font size and colours that will be easily read by all those viewing the poster (note that red and green are difficult to read by many people).
• Careful editing of text – terminology and spelling should be checked; wording should be simplified; acronyms should be defined; and complexity should be reduced (for example, phrases or bullet points, rather than sentences, should be used). A test is that others with little or no background in the area under investigation should be able to understand the language and identify the key points of the investigation.
• Clear labelling of all images (for example, diagrams or photographs of the experimental set-up or results).
• Graphs drawn with clear, relevant scales, grids, labels and annotations.
• Editing of graphs derived directly from spreadsheet programs so that graphs do not have coloured backgrounds, grid lines, or boxes that distract from the poster information.
• Axis labels formatted in sentence case (Not in Title Case and NOT IN ALL CAPS).
• Calculations presented in a clear, non-repetitive manner (for example, one sample calculation can be shown and then the results of similar calculations can be displayed in a table); appropriate units must be shown.
• All references stated and appropriate acknowledgments provided.

Scientific poster sections

Scientific poster sections, specifically the communication statement reporting the key finding of the investigation as a one-sentence summary, title, introduction, methodology and methods, results, discussion, conclusions, references and acknowledgments, are mandated for the scientific poster that is constructed as part of the assessment for Unit 4 Outcome 3. Within the mandated sections, some tailoring of organisational elements is optional.

The centrally placed one-sentence statement of student investigation results in the scientific poster for Unit 4 Outcome 3 emphasises the importance of clear, succinct scientific communication to the wider community, and requires that students carefully consider why they had undertaken their selected investigation and how the major investigation finding can be reported. A single key graphic or photograph, or sequence of illustrations or photographs, relevant to the investigation results could be added to this central panel for visual impact.

Scientific poster templates available in the public domain may be used provided that the mandated poster sections are included. The use of a template can help minimise many common communication faults by keeping column alignments logical, including mandated sub-headings that provide clear cues as to how readers should travel through poster elements, and maintaining sufficient 'white space' so that clutter is reduced.

There is no mandated VCAA style for the use of person or voice in writing a scientific poster, since the scientific community has not reached a consensus about which style it prefers. Increasingly, using first person (rather than third person) and active (rather than passive) voice is acceptable in scientific reports and posters, because arguably this style of writing conveys information more clearly and concisely.

However, this choice of person and voice brings two scientific values into conflict – objectivity versus clarity. This may account for the different viewpoints in the scientific community. Use of tense is dependent on the section of the report: when describing something that has already happened (for example, the investigation procedure) then past tense is used, as in 'The aim of the experiment was to...'; when describing something that still exists (for example, the report, theory and permanent equipment) then the present tense is used, as in 'The purpose of this report is to...', ‘Le Chatelier’s principle states that...' and ‘A calorimeter can be used to...'

The 600-word limit for the scientific poster requires that students carefully consider what should be included to ensure effective science communication. Teachers may assess some components of the investigation through logbook entries, particularly some of the background information, data manipulation and discussion of results. Poster title, student name / identification number, tables, graphs, flowcharts, figure captions, references and acknowledgements are not included in the poster word count.

Further consideration of the poster format in the VCE Chemistry Study Design 2023–2027 can be found at: How to create a better research poster in less time (#betterposter Generation 1) - YouTube

Further advice about assessment of the scientific poster can be found in the Units 3 and 4 assessment section of this resource.

Scientific inquiry in chemistry requires students to apply numeracy skills so that they can make and record observations, organise and analyse data, and interpret trends and relationships.

In processing, evaluating and discussing their own and others’ data it is expected that VCE Chemistry students will be able to:

• distinguish between qualitative and quantitative data, and between primary and secondary data
• record data in a suitable table, with appropriate units in the row or column headings
• use a calculator for addition, subtraction, multiplication and division, and to calculate squares (x²), square roots (√x), and reciprocals (1 / x)
• perform calculations involving means, decimals, fractions, percentages, ratios, approximations and reciprocals
• interpret and transpose mathematical formulas in order to calculate and predict values 
• convert between units
• select and use the most appropriate units for recording data and the results of calculations
• use standard notation
• use direct and inverse proportion
• solve simple algebraic equations
• plot graphs (with suitable scales and axes) including two variables that show linear and non-linear relationships
• interpret graphs, including the significance of gradients, changes in gradients and intercepts
• draw lines (either curves or linear) of best fit on a scatter plot graph
• construct and use calibration curves
• construct and interpret diagrammatic representations of data, including pie charts, line graphs, scatter graphs and bar charts, both using technology and drawn by hand using a pencil with a 2B lead.

Measurement terms related to the analysis and evaluation of quantitative data are defined on pages 18 and 19 of the study design. Students are expected to apply measurement terms to the analysis, interpretation and evaluation of their own and others’ investigation data. Unpacking the terminology for VCE Chemistry – Data and measurement provides further advice and examples.

Application of measurement terms by students to process data

The following example illustrates the scope of the use of measurement terms for VCE Chemistry.

The following points could be included in a discussion of a comparison of the two sets of results:

• Group A’s results show greater resolution due to the use of a digital pH meter, which can be read to 2 decimal places compared with pH paper kits, where the resolution can only be determined to 1 decimal place.
• Group A’s results are close together and can therefore be described as repeatable and showing high precision.
• Group B’s results are not close together and therefore are less precise than Group A’s results.
• Group B’s results are much lower than Group A’s results, so Group A’s results have not been reproduced by Group B. There are many reasons as to why this may be the case, including that the manufacturing company released different types of effluents on the different days that the sampling was undertaken or that there are differences in the pH of the creek due to other farming activities along the creek or that there may be natural seasonal differences in the pH of the creek.
• Since there is no ‘true value’ or ‘standard value’ for the pH of the stream, since its pH is not a constant value, it is not possible to comment on the degree of accuracy of the results. It may be the case that Group B’s measurements are more accurate than Group A’s results because of factors such as systematic error in the digital pH meter used by Group A, or a procedural error.
• Group B could consider whether more data should have been generated to produce a set of more precise data or whether an alternative method should be considered for determining the pH to obtain more precise data.

Such analysis of student data from investigations is important in developing their skills in using evidence to draw conclusions.

Tabular presentation of data

• Each column of a table should be headed with the physical quantity and the appropriate unit; for example, time (seconds).
• The column headings of the table can then be directly transferred to the axes of a constructed graph.

Graphical representation of data

To explain the relationship between two or more variables investigated in an experiment, data should be presented in such a way as to make any patterns and trends more evident. Although tables are an effective means of recording data, they may not be the best way to show trends, patterns or relationships. Graphical representations can be used to more clearly show whether any trends, patterns or relationships exist. Conclusions drawn from data must be limited by, and not go beyond, the data available.

The type of graphical representation used by students will depend upon the type of scientific investigation methodology and the type of variables investigated. Graphical representations in VCE Chemistry provides further information including conventions for drawing graphs.